Multi-level graphene-protected anode active material particles for fast-charging lithium-ion batteries

ABSTRACT

Provided is graphene-embraced particulate for use as a lithium-ion battery anode active material, wherein the particulate comprises primary particle(s) of an anode active material and multiple sheets of a first graphene material overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate the primary particle(s) and wherein a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by multiple sheets of a second graphene material, wherein the first graphene and/or the second graphene material is attached to a redox partner species (e.g. sulfonyl group, —NH 2 , etc.) capable of reversibly forming a redox pair with lithium. The invention also provides an anode electrode and a battery comprising multiple graphene-embraced particulates having redox forming species bonded thereto.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of lithium batteries and, in particular, to graphene-protected electrode active materials for lithium batteries.

BACKGROUND A Review on Anode Active Materials

The most commonly used anode materials for lithium-ion batteries are natural graphite and synthetic graphite (or artificial graphite) that can be intercalated with lithium and the resulting graphite intercalation compound (GIC) may be expressed as Li_(x)C₆, where x is typically less than 1. The maximum amount of lithium that can be reversibly intercalated into the interstices between graphene planes of a perfect graphite crystal corresponds to x=1, defining a theoretical specific capacity of 372 mAh/g.

Graphite or carbon anodes can have a long cycle life due to the presence of a protective surface-electrolyte interface layer (SEI), which results from the reaction between lithium and the electrolyte (or between lithium and the anode surface/edge atoms or functional groups) during the first several charge-discharge cycles. The lithium in this reaction comes from some of the lithium ions originally intended for the charge transfer purpose. As the SEI is formed, the lithium ions become part of the inert SEI layer and become irreversible, i.e. they can no longer be the active element for charge transfer. Therefore, it is desirable to use a minimum amount of lithium for the formation of an effective SEI layer. In addition to SEI formation, the irreversible capacity loss Q_(ir) can also be attributed to graphite exfoliation caused by electrolyte/solvent co-intercalation and other side reactions.

In addition to carbon- or graphite-based anode materials, other inorganic materials that have been evaluated for potential anode applications include metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal sulfides, and the like, and a range of metals, metal alloys, and intermetallic compounds that can accommodate lithium atoms/ions or react with lithium. Among these materials, lithium alloys having a composition formula of Li_(a)A (A is a metal such as Al, and “a” satisfies 0<a #5) are of great interest due to their high theoretical capacity, e.g., Li₄Si (3,829 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Si (4,200 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Ge (1,623 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Sn (993 mAh/g), Li₃Cd (715 mAh/g), Li₃Sb (660 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Pb (569 mAh/g), LiZn (410 mAh/g), and Li₃Bi (385 mAh/g). However, in the anodes composed of these materials, severe pulverization (fragmentation of the alloy particles) occurs during the charge and discharge cycles due to expansion and contraction of the anode active material induced by the insertion and extraction of the lithium ions in and out of the anode active material. The expansion and contraction, and the resulting pulverization of active material particles lead to loss of contacts between active particles and conductive additives and loss of contacts between the anode active material and its current collector. This degradation phenomenon is illustrated in FIG. 1. These adverse effects result in a significantly shortened charge-discharge cycle life.

To overcome the problems associated with such mechanical degradation, three technical approaches have been proposed:

-   (1) reducing the size of the active material particle, presumably     for the purpose of reducing the strain energy that can be stored in     a particle, which is a driving force for crack formation in the     particle. However, a reduced particle size implies a higher surface     area available for potentially reacting with the liquid electrolyte.     Such a reaction is undesirable since it is a source of irreversible     capacity loss. -   (2) depositing the electrode active material in a thin film form     directly onto a current collector, such as a copper foil. However,     such a thin film structure with an extremely small     thickness-direction dimension (typically much smaller than 500 nm,     often necessarily thinner than 100 nm) implies that only a small     amount of active material can be incorporated in an electrode (given     the same electrode or current collector surface area), providing a     low total lithium storage capacity and low lithium storage capacity     per unit electrode surface area (even though the capacity per unit     mass can be large). Such a thin film must have a thickness less than     100 nm to be more resistant to cycling-induced cracking, further     diminishing the total lithium storage capacity and the lithium     storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin-film     battery has very limited scope of application. A desirable and     typical electrode thickness is from 100 μm to 200 μm. These     thin-film electrodes (with a thickness of <500 nm or even <100 nm)     fall short of the required thickness by three (3) orders of     magnitude, not just by a factor of 3. -   (3) using a composite composed of small electrode active particles     protected by (dispersed in or encapsulated by) a less active or     non-active matrix, e.g., carbon-coated Si particles, sol gel     graphite-protected Si, metal oxide-coated Si or Sn, and     monomer-coated Sn nanoparticles. Presumably, the protective matrix     provides a cushioning effect for particle expansion or shrinkage,     and prevents the electrolyte from contacting and reacting with the     electrode active material. Examples of anode active particles are     Si, Sn, and SnO₂. Unfortunately, when an active material particle,     such as Si particle, expands during the battery charge step, the     protective coating is easily broken due to the mechanical weakness     and/or brittleness of the protective coating materials. There has     been no high-strength and high-toughness material available that is     itself also lithium ion conductive.     -   It may be further noted that the coating or matrix materials         used to protect active particles (such as Si and Sn) are carbon,         sol gel graphite, metal oxide, monomer, ceramic, and lithium         oxide. These protective materials alone are all very brittle,         weak (of low strength), and/or non-conducting (e.g., ceramic or         oxide coating). Ideally, the protective material should meet the         following requirements: (a) The coating or matrix material         should be of high strength and stiffness so that it can help to         refrain the electrode active material particles, when lithiated,         from expanding to an excessive extent. (b) The protective         material should also have high fracture toughness or high         resistance to crack formation to avoid disintegration during         repeated cycling. (c) The protective material must be inert         (inactive) with respect to the electrolyte, but be a good         lithium ion conductor. (d) The protective material must not         provide any significant amount of defect sites that irreversibly         trap lithium ions. (e) The protective material must be lithium         ion conductive. The prior art protective materials all fall         short of these requirements. Hence, it was not surprising to         observe that the resulting anode typically shows a reversible         specific capacity much lower than expected. In many cases, the         first-cycle efficiency is extremely low (mostly lower than 80%         and some even lower than 60%). Furthermore, in most cases, the         electrode was not capable of operating for a large number of         cycles. Additionally, most of these electrodes are not high-rate         capable, exhibiting unacceptably low capacity at a high         discharge rate.         Due to these and other reasons, most of prior art composite         electrodes have deficiencies in some ways, e.g., in most cases,         less than satisfactory reversible capacity, poor cycling         stability, high irreversible capacity, ineffectiveness in         reducing the internal stress or strain during the lithium ion         insertion and extraction steps, and other undesirable side         effects.

Complex composite particles of particular interest are a mixture of separate Si and graphite particles dispersed in a carbon matrix; e.g. those prepared by Mao, et al. [“Carbon-coated Silicon Particle Powder as the Anode Material for Lithium Batteries and the Method of Making the Same,” US 2005/0136330 (Jun. 23, 2005)]. Also of interest are carbon matrix-containing complex nano Si (protected by oxide) and graphite particles dispersed therein, and carbon-coated Si particles distributed on a surface of graphite particles Again, these complex composite particles led to a low specific capacity or can be charged-discharged for up to a small number of cycles only. It appears that carbon by itself is relatively weak and brittle and the presence of micron-sized graphite particles does not improve the mechanical integrity of carbon since graphite particles are themselves relatively weak. Graphite was used in these cases presumably for the purpose of improving the electrical conductivity of the anode material. Furthermore, polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, or pre-graphitic carbon may have too many lithium-trapping sites that irreversibly capture lithium during the first few cycles, resulting in excessive irreversibility.

In summary, the prior art has not demonstrated a composite material that has all or most of the properties desired for use as an anode material in a lithium-ion battery. Thus, there is an urgent and continuing need for a new anode for the lithium-ion battery that has a high cycle life, high reversible capacity, low irreversible capacity, small particle sizes (for high-rate capacity), and compatibility with commonly used electrolytes. There is also a need for a method of readily or easily producing such a material in large quantities.

In response to these needs, one of our earlier applications discloses a nanoscaled graphene platelet-based composite composition for use as a lithium ion battery anode [A. Zhamu and B. Z. Jang, “Nano Graphene Platelet-Based Composite Anode Compositions for Lithium Ion Batteries,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/982,672 (Nov. 5, 2007); Now U.S. Pat. No. 7,745,047 (Jun. 29, 2010)]. This composition comprises: (a) micron- or nanometer-scaled particles or coating of an anode active material; and (b) a plurality of nanoscaled graphene platelets (NGPs), wherein a platelet comprises a graphene sheet or a stack of graphene sheets having a platelet thickness less than 100 nm and wherein the particles or coating are physically attached or chemically bonded to NGPs. Nano graphene platelets (NGPs) are individual graphene sheets (individual basal planes of carbon atoms isolated from a graphite crystal) or stacks of multiple graphene planes bonded together in the thickness direction. The NGPs have a thickness less than 100 nm and a length, width, or diameter that can be greater or less than 10 μm. The thickness is more preferably less than 10 nm and most preferably less than 1 nm.

Disclosed in another patent application of ours is a more specific composition, which is composed of a 3-D network of NGPs and/or other conductive filaments and select anode active material particles that are bonded to these NGPs or filaments through a conductive binder [Jinjun Shi, Aruna Zhamu and Bor Z. Jang, “Conductive Nanocomposite-based Electrodes for Lithium Batteries,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/156,644 (Jun. 4, 2008) (U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2009-0305135)]. Yet another application, as schematically shown in FIG. 2(A) and FIG. 2(B), provides a nano graphene-reinforced nanocomposite solid particle composition containing NGPs and electrode active material particles, which are both dispersed in a protective matrix (e.g. a carbon matrix) [Aruna Zhamu, Bor Z. Jang, and Jinjun Shi, “Nano Graphene Reinforced Nanocomposite for Lithium Battery Electrodes,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/315,555 (Dec. 4, 2008) (U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2010-0143798)].

After our discovery of graphene providing an outstanding support for anode active materials, many subsequent studies by others have confirmed the effectiveness of this approach. For instance, Wang, et al. investigated self-assembled TiO₂-graphene hybrid nanostructures for enhanced Li-ion insertion [D. Wang, et al. “Self-Assembled TiO₂-Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures for Enhanced Li-Ion Insertion.” ACS Nano, 3 (2009) 907-914]. The results indicate that, as compared with the pure TiO₂ phase, the specific capacity of the hybrid was more than doubled at high charge rates. The improved capacity at a high charge-discharge rate was attributed to increased electrode conductivity afforded by a percolated graphene network embedded into the metal oxide electrodes. However, all these earlier studies were focused solely on providing a network of electron-conducting paths for the anode active material particles and failed to address other critical issues, such as ease of anode material processing, electrode processability, electrode tap density (the ability to pack a dense mass into a given volume), and long-term cycling stability. For instance, the method of preparing self-assembled hybrid nanostructures is not amenable to mass production. The graphene oxide sheets used were made using an environmentally undesirable process prior to the assembling procedure. The anode material particle-coated graphene sheets alone are not suitable for electrode fabrication (due to the difficulty in coating the materials onto a current collector), and the resulting electrodes are typically too low in the tap density. Additionally, paper-based composite structures are not compatible with current lithium-ion battery production equipment. These are all critically important issues that must be addressed in a real battery manufacturing environment.

A Review on Cathode Active Materials

Due to extremely poor electrical conductivity of all cathode (positive electrode) active materials in a lithium-ion, lithium metal, or lithium-sulfur cell, a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black, fine graphite particles, expanded graphite particles, or their combinations), typically in the amount of 5%-20%, must be added into the electrode. In the case of a lithium-sulfur cell, a carbon amount as high as 50% by weight is used as a conductive support for sulfur in the cathode. However, the conductive additive is not an electrode active material (i.e. it is not capable of reversibly storing lithium ions). The use of a non-active material means that the relative proportion of an electrode active material, such as LiFePO₄, is reduced or diluted. For instance, the incorporation of 5% by weight of PVDF as a binder and 5% of carbon black as a conductive additive in a cathode would mean that the maximum amount of the cathode active material (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide) is only 90%, effectively reducing the total lithium ion storage capacity. Since the specific capacities of the more commonly used cathode active materials are already very low (140-170 mAh/g), this problem is further aggravated if a significant amount of non-active materials is used to dilute the concentration of the active material.

State-of-the-art carbon black (CB) materials, as a conductive additive, have several drawbacks:

-   -   (1) CBs are typically available in the form of aggregates of         multiple primary particles that are typically spherical in         shape. Due to this geometric feature (largest         dimension-to-smallest dimension ratio or aspect ratio ˜1) and         the notion that CBs are a minority phase dispersed as discrete         particles in an electrically insulating matrix (e.g. lithium         cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate), a large amount of CBs         is required to reach a percolation threshold where the CB         particles are combined to form a 3-D network of         electron-conducting paths.     -   (2) CBs themselves have a relatively low electrical conductivity         and, hence, the resulting electrode remains to be of relatively         low conductivity even when the percolation threshold is reached.         A relatively high proportion of CBs (far beyond the percolation         threshold) must be incorporated in the cathode to make the         resulting composite electrode reasonably conducting.

Clearly, an urgent need exists for a more effective electrically conductive additive material. Preferably, this electrically conductive additive is also of high thermal conductivity. Such a thermally conductive additive would be capable of dissipating the heat generated from the electrochemical operation of the Li-ion battery, thereby increasing the reliability of the battery and decreasing the likelihood that the battery will suffer from thermal runaway and rupture. With a high electrical conductivity, there would be no need to add a high proportion of conductive additives.

There have been several attempts to use other carbon nanomaterials than carbon black (CB) or acetylene black (AB) as a conductive additive for the cathode of a lithium battery. These include carbon nanotubes (CNTs), vapor-grown carbon nanofibers (VG-CNFs), and simple carbon coating on the surface of cathode active material particles. The result has not been satisfactory and hence, as of today, carbon black and artificial graphite particles are practically the only two types of cathode conductive additives widely used in lithium ion battery industry. The reasons are beyond just the obvious high costs of both CNTs and VG-CNFs. The difficulty in disentangling CNTs and VG-CNFs and uniformly dispersing them in a liquid or solid medium has been an impediment to the more widespread utilization of these expensive materials as a conductive additive. Additionally, the production of both CNTs and VG-CNFs normally require the use of a significant amount of transition metal nanoparticles as a catalyst. It is difficult to remove and impossible to totally remove these transition metal particles, which can have adverse effect on the cycling stability of a lithium metal.

As for the less expensive carbon coating, being considered for use in lithium iron phosphate, the conductivity of the carbon coating (typically obtained by converting a precursor such as sugar or resin via pyrolyzation) is relatively low. It would take a graphitization treatment to render the carbon coating more conductive, but this treatment requires a temperature higher than 2,000° C., which would degrade the underlying cathode active material (e.g., LiFePO₄).

As an alternative approach, Ding, et al investigated the electrochemical behavior of LiFePO₄/graphene composites [Y. Ding, et al. “Preparation of nano-structured LiFePO₄/graphene composites by co-precipitation method,” Electrochemistry Communications 12 (2010) 10-13]. The co-precipitation method leads to the formation of LiFePO₄ nanoparticles coated on both primary surfaces of graphene nanosheets. The cathode is then prepared by stacking these LiFePO₄-coated graphene sheets together. This approach has several major drawbacks:

-   -   (1) With the two primary surfaces of a graphene sheet attached         with LiFePO₄ nanoparticles, the resulting electrode entails many         insulator-to-insulator contacts between two adjoining coated         sheets in a stack.     -   (2) Only less than 30% of the graphene surface area is covered         by LiFePO₄ particles on either side. This is a relatively low         proportion of the cathode active material.     -   (3) The LiFePO₄ particles are easily detached from graphene         sheets during handling and electrode production.     -   (4) We have found that the nanoparticle-attached graphene sheets         as prepared by the co-precipitation method are not amenable to         fabrication of cathodes with current electrode coating         equipment. In particular, these particle-attached graphene         sheets could not be compacted into a dense state with a high         mass per unit electrode volume. In other words, the cathode tap         density is relatively low. This is a very serious issue since         all of the commonly used cathode active materials, including         LiFePO₄, already have a very low specific capacity (mAh/g), and         not being able to pack a large mass of a cathode active material         into a given electrode volume would mean an excessively low         overall capacity at the cathode side. (It may be noted that the         typical specific capacity (140-170 mAh/g) of a cathode active         material is already much lower than that (330-360 mAh/g) of an         anode active material. Such an imbalance has been a major issue         in the design and fabrication of lithium ion batteries.)

A Review on Graphene (Isolated Graphene Sheets or Nano Graphene Platelets)

A single-layer graphene sheet is composed of carbon atoms occupying a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice. Multi-layer graphene is a platelet composed of more than one graphene plane. Individual single-layer graphene sheets and multi-layer graphene platelets are herein collectively called nano graphene platelets (NGPs) or graphene materials. NGPs include pristine graphene (essentially 99% of carbon atoms), slightly oxidized graphene 5% by weight of oxygen), graphene oxide (≥5% by weight of oxygen), slightly fluorinated graphene 5% by weight of fluorine), graphene fluoride ((≥5% by weight of fluorine), other halogenated graphene, and chemically functionalized graphene.

NGPs have been found to have a range of unusual physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. For instance, graphene was found to exhibit the highest intrinsic strength and highest thermal conductivity of all existing materials. Although practical electronic device applications for graphene (e.g., replacing Si as a backbone in a transistor) are not envisioned to occur within the next 5-10 years, its application as a nanofiller in a composite material and an electrode material in energy storage devices is imminent. The availability of processable graphene sheets in large quantities is essential to the success in exploiting composite, energy, and other applications for graphene.

Our research group was among the first to discover graphene [B. Z. Jang and W. C. Huang, “Nano-scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/274,473, submitted on Oct. 21, 2002; now U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,258 (Jul. 4, 2006)]. The processes for producing NGPs and NGP nanocomposites were recently reviewed by us [Bor Z. Jang and A Zhamu, “Processing of Nano Graphene Platelets (NGPs) and NGP Nanocomposites: A Review,” J. Materials Sci. 43 (2008) 5092-5101]. Our research has yielded a process for chemical-free production of isolated nano graphene platelets that is novel in that is does not follow the established methods for production of nano graphene platelets outlined below. In addition, the process is of enhanced utility in that it is cost effective, and provided novel graphene materials with significantly reduced environmental impact. Four main prior-art approaches have been followed to produce NGPs. Their advantages and shortcomings are briefly summarized as follows:

Prior Art Method for Production of Isolated Graphene Sheets (NGPs)

Approach 1: Chemical Formation and Reduction of Graphite Oxide (GO) Platelets

The first approach (FIG. 1) entails treating natural graphite powder with an intercalant and an oxidant (e.g., concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid, respectively) to obtain a graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or, actually, graphite oxide (GO). [William S. Hummers, Jr., et al., Preparation of Graphitic Oxide, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1958, p. 1339.] Prior to intercalation or oxidation, graphite has an inter-graphene plane spacing of approximately 0.335 nm (L_(d)=½ d₀₀₂=0.335 nm). With an intercalation and oxidation treatment, the inter-graphene spacing is increased to a value typically greater than 0.6 nm. This is the first expansion stage experienced by the graphite material during this chemical route. The obtained GIC or GO is then subjected to further expansion (often referred to as exfoliation) using either a thermal shock exposure or a solution-based, ultrasonication-assisted graphene layer exfoliation approach.

In the thermal shock exposure approach, the GIC or GO is exposed to a high temperature (typically 800-1,050° C.) for a short period of time (typically 15 to 60 seconds) to exfoliate or expand the GIC or GO for the formation of exfoliated or further expanded graphite, which is typically in the form of a “graphite worm” composed of graphite flakes that are still interconnected with one another. This thermal shock procedure can produce some separated graphite flakes or graphene sheets, but normally the majority of graphite flakes remain interconnected. Typically, the exfoliated graphite or graphite worm is then subjected to a flake separation treatment using air milling, mechanical shearing, or ultrasonication in water. Hence, approach 1 basically entails three distinct procedures: first expansion (oxidation or intercalation), further expansion (or “exfoliation”), and separation.

In the solution-based separation approach, the expanded or exfoliated GO powder is dispersed in water or aqueous alcohol solution, which is subjected to ultrasonication. It is important to note that in these processes, ultrasonification is used after intercalation and oxidation of graphite (i.e., after first expansion) and typically after thermal shock exposure of the resulting GIC or GO (after second expansion). Alternatively, the GO powder dispersed in water is subjected to an ion exchange or lengthy purification procedure in such a manner that the repulsive forces between ions residing in the inter-planar spaces overcome the inter-graphene van der Waals forces, resulting in graphene layer separations.

There are several major problems associated with this conventional chemical production process:

-   -   (1) The process requires the use of large quantities of several         undesirable chemicals, such as sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and         potassium permanganate or sodium chlorate.     -   (2) The chemical treatment process requires a long intercalation         and oxidation time, typically 5 hours to five days.     -   (3) Strong acids consume a significant amount of graphite during         this long intercalation or oxidation process by “eating their         way into the graphite” (converting graphite into carbon dioxide,         which is lost in the process). It is not unusual to lose 20-50%         by weight of the graphite material immersed in strong acids and         oxidizers.     -   (4) The thermal exfoliation requires a high temperature         (typically 800-1,200° C.) and, hence, is a highly         energy-intensive process.     -   (5) Both heat- and solution-induced exfoliation approaches         require a very tedious washing and purification step. For         instance, typically 2.5 kg of water is used to wash and recover         1 gram of GIC, producing huge quantities of waste water that         need to be properly treated.     -   (6) In both the heat- and solution-induced exfoliation         approaches, the resulting products are GO platelets that must         undergo a further chemical reduction treatment to reduce the         oxygen content. Typically even after reduction, the electrical         conductivity of GO platelets remains much lower than that of         pristine graphene. Furthermore, the reduction procedure often         involves the utilization of toxic chemicals, such as hydrazine.     -   (7) Furthermore, the quantity of intercalation solution retained         on the flakes after draining may range from 20 to 150 parts of         solution by weight per 100 parts by weight of graphite flakes         (pph) and more typically about 50 to 120 pph. During the         high-temperature exfoliation, the residual intercalate species         retained by the flakes decompose to produce various species of         sulfuric and nitrous compounds (e.g., NO_(x) and SO_(x)), which         are undesirable. The effluents require expensive remediation         procedures in order not to have an adverse environmental impact.

Approach 2: Direct Formation of Pristine Nano Graphene Platelets

In 2002, our research team succeeded in isolating single-layer and multi-layer graphene sheets from partially carbonized or graphitized polymeric carbons, which were obtained from a polymer or pitch precursor [B. Z. Jang and W. C. Huang, “Nano-scaled Graphene Plates,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/274,473, submitted on Oct. 21, 2002; now U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,258 (Jul. 4, 2006)]. Mack, et al [“Chemical manufacture of nanostructured materials” U.S. Pat. No. 6,872,330 (Mar. 29, 2005)] developed a process that involved intercalating graphite with potassium melt and contacting the resulting K-intercalated graphite with alcohol, producing violently exfoliated graphite containing NGPs. The process must be carefully conducted in a vacuum or an extremely dry glove box environment since pure alkali metals, such as potassium and sodium, are extremely sensitive to moisture and pose an explosion danger. This process is not amenable to the mass production of NGPs.

Approach 3: Epitaxial Growth and Chemical Vapor Deposition of Graphene Sheets on Inorganic Crystal Surfaces

Small-scale production of ultra-thin graphene sheets on a substrate can be obtained by thermal decomposition-based epitaxial growth and a laser desorption-ionization technique. [Walt A. DeHeer, Claire Berger, Phillip N. First, “Patterned thin film graphite devices and method for making same” U.S. Pat. No. 7,327,000 B2 (Jun. 12, 2003)] Epitaxial films of graphite with only one or a few atomic layers are of technological and scientific significance due to their peculiar characteristics and great potential as a device substrate. However, these processes are not suitable for mass production of isolated graphene sheets for composite materials and energy storage applications.

Approach 4: The Bottom-Up Approach (Synthesis of Graphene from Small Molecules)

Yang, et al. [“Two-dimensional Graphene Nano-ribbons,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130 (2008) 4216-17] synthesized nano graphene sheets with lengths of up to 12 nm using a method that began with Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of 1,4-diiodo-2,3,5,6-tetraphenyl-benzene with 4-bromophenylboronic acid. The resulting hexaphenylbenzene derivative was further derivatized and ring-fused into small graphene sheets. This is a slow process that thus far has produced very small graphene sheets.

Thus, an urgent need exists to have a graphene production process that requires a reduced amount of undesirable chemical (or elimination of these chemicals all together), shortened process time, less energy consumption, lower degree of graphene oxidation, reduced or eliminated effluents of undesirable chemical species into the drainage (e.g., sulfuric acid) or into the air (e.g., SO₂ and NO₂). The process should be able to produce more pristine (less oxidized and damaged), more electrically conductive, and larger/wider graphene sheets.

Using the lithium-ion battery and lithium metal battery as examples, these graphene sheets must be effective in (a) protecting anode active materials or cathode active materials (e.g. against volume expansion/shrinkage-induced pulverization and repeated SEI formation) and the electrodes (against excessive volume changes of both anode and cathode) during repeated battery charges/discharges for improved cycle stability and (b) providing a 3D network of electron-conducting pathways without the use of an excessive amount of conductive additives that are non-active materials (that adds weight and volume to the battery without providing additional capacity of storing lithium ions).

Most desirably, a need exists for a process that is capable of producing isolated graphene sheets directly from a graphitic material and, concurrently, transferring the graphene sheets to wrap around, embrace or encapsulate the primary particles of an anode active material or cathode active material. These graphene sheets must be arranged in a structure capable of preventing rapid capacity decay.

In short, the present invention was made to overcome the aforementioned limitations of current lithium batteries and the graphene materials used to protect these batteries.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It may be noted that the word “electrode” herein refers to either an anode (negative electrode) or a cathode (positive electrode) of a battery. These definitions are also commonly accepted in the art of batteries or electrochemistry.

The present invention provides a graphene-embraced particulate (secondary particle) for use as a lithium-ion battery electrode active material (anode or cathode active material), wherein the particulate comprises a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles of an anode active material or a cathode active material, having a size from 5 nm to 20 μm, wherein the graphene-encapsulated primary particle is composed of a primary particle of the electrode active material and multiple sheets of a first graphene material overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate the primary particle (no resin binder is used; graphene sheets naturally wrap around the particles in a tight and conformal manner) and wherein the single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by multiple sheets of a second graphene material (these graphene sheets also not bonded by a resin binder either), wherein the first graphene material is the same as or different from the second graphene material, and wherein the first graphene material and the second graphene material is each in an amount from 0.01% to 20% by weight and the optional conductive additive is in an amount from 0% to 50% by weight, all based on the total weight of the particulate.

In the particulate, a surface of the first graphene material sheet or the second graphene material sheet is in physical contact with or bonded to a chemical species (such as sulfonate or sulfonyl-containing group, phosphate, or —NH₂-containing groups) forming a redox pair with lithium. These redox pairs may be selected from lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate, lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzene-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-dimethylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, 3,3′-((1,2-dithiane-4,5-diyl)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), 3,3′-((4-mercapto-1,2-phenylene)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), lithium aniline sulfonate, poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, lithium sulfate, lithium phosphate, lithium phosphate monobasic, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptadecafluorooctane-1-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-di-tert-butylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, lithium aniline sulfonate (wherein the sulfonate may be in any of para, meta and ortho positions), poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, a sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.

The single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets wrapped around the primary particles and/or those single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets wrapped around the secondary particles provide high specific surface areas where the electric double layers of charges (EDLC) can be formed during the charging procedure of this energy storage system. In addition, the redox-forming species are capable of rapidly and reversibly forming redox pairs with lithium and, thereby, providing additional mechanisms of storing lithium ions. Graphene sheets appear to provide an exceptionally high-conductivity environment conducive to improved response time of these redox pairs. As such, the co-existence of graphene sheets and the redox-forming species appear to provide unexpected synergistic effects in terms of rapidly storing charges. These reversible charge storage mechanisms are fast since these mechanisms do not require slow solid-state diffusion (intercalation) of lithium ions. We have surprisingly observed that these added charge storage mechanisms enable the lithium-ion battery to become fast-chargeable, from traditionally 1 C rate to >10 C rate, or even >50 C rate. It may be noted that, in lithium-ion battery industry, 1 C rate=1 hour to complete a charge and/or discharge procedure; 5 C rate=⅕ hours, and 10 C rate= 1/10 hours, etc.

The sulfonated polymer can help support or anchor the lower-molecular weight redox species, making the configuration more robust. In addition, the sulfonyl groups attached to these sulfonated polymers are found to be capable of forming redox pairs with lithium as well.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated polymer may be selected from sulfonated polyaniline, sulfonated polypyrrole, a sulfonated polythiophene, sulfonated polyfuran, a sulfonated bi-cyclic polymer, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated polymer is selected from sulfonated natural polyisoprene, sulfonated synthetic polyisoprene, sulfonated polybutadiene, sulfonated chloroprene rubber, sulfonated polychloroprene, sulfonated butyl rubber, sulfonated styrene-butadiene rubber, sulfonated nitrile rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-octene) elastomer, sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, sulfonated styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, sulfonated epichlorohydrin rubber, sulfonated polyacrylic rubber, sulfonated silicone rubber, sulfonated fluorosilicone rubber, sulfonated perfluoroelastomers, sulfonated polyether block amides, sulfonated chlorosulfonated polyethylene, sulfonated ethylene-vinyl acetate, sulfonated thermoplastic elastomer, sulfonated protein resilin, sulfonated protein elastin, sulfonated ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, sulfonated polyurethane, sulfonated urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetra-fluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer, sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride, sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene, polybenzimidazole, and chemical derivatives, copolymers, and blends thereof.

The aforementioned redox-forming species and sulfonated polymers may be coated onto surfaces of graphene-encapsulated primary particles and/or surfaces of graphene-embraced secondary particles using any known techniques, such as dipping, spraying, spray-coating, fluidized spray-coating, and spray-drying.

In some embodiments, the particulate is spherical or ellipsoidal in shape.

The first graphene material or the second graphene material preferably comprises single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein the few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene sheet or platelet formed of 2-10 graphene planes. There are multiple single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets/platelets wrapping around one primary particle or a few primary particles clustered together.

In some embodiments, the first graphene material or the second graphene material is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.

In certain preferred embodiments, the first graphene material is different than the second graphene material. In some embodiments, the first graphene material contains pristine graphene and the second graphene material is selected from graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the first graphene material contains pristine graphene or a first chemically functionalized graphene and the second graphene material is selected from graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, a second chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof, wherein the first chemically functionalized graphene is different than the second chemically functionalized graphene.

In certain embodiments, the anode active material comprises an element selected from Si, Ge, Sn, Cd, Sb, Pb, Bi, Zn, Al, Co, Ni, or Ti.

In some embodiments, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) lithiated and un-lithiated silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) lithiated and un-lithiated alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) lithiated and un-lithiated oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, Mn, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) lithiated and un-lithiated salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; and combinations thereof.

In certain embodiments, the primary particles of anode active material are selected from lithiated titanium dioxide, lithiated titanium oxide, lithium titanate, or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of anode active material are selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, mesocarbon microbead (MCMB), graphitic coke, mesophase carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, polymeric carbon, carbon or graphite fiber segments, carbon nanofiber or graphitic nanofiber, carbon nanotube, or a combination thereof.

The electrode active material may be a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic or polymeric material, a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide, or a combination thereof. The metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, sodium cobalt oxide sodium nickel oxide, sodium manganese oxide, sodium vanadium oxide, sodium-mixed metal oxide, sodium iron phosphate, sodium manganese phosphate, sodium vanadium phosphate, sodium mixed metal phosphate, transition metal sulfide, lithium polysulfide, sodium polysulfide, magnesium polysulfide, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the electrode active material may be a cathode active material selected from sulfur, sulfur compound, sulfur-carbon composite, sulfur-polymer composite, lithium polysulfide, transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.

The metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide contains a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5. In some embodiments, the metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide is selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

The inorganic material may be selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

The organic material or polymeric material is selected from poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAM), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof. These compounds are preferably mixed with a conducting material to improve their electrical conductivity and rigidity so as to enable the peeling-off of graphene sheets from the graphitic material particles.

The thioether polymer in the above list may be selected from poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In some embodiments, the organic material contains a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. These compounds are preferably mixed with a conducting material to improve their electrical conductivity and rigidity so as to enable the peeling-off of graphene sheets from the graphitic material particles.

Preferably, in the particulate, the primary particles of an electrode active material have a size from 10 nm to 1 μm, further preferably from 10 nm to 100 nm.

The conductive additive may be selected from amorphous carbon, CVD carbon, carbonized resin, expanded graphite platelet, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, carbon fiber, graphite fiber, pitch, coke, carbon black, acetylene black, activated carbon, pitch-derived soft carbon (a soft carbon is a carbon that can be graphitized at a temperature higher than 2,500° C.), pitch-derived hard carbon (a carbon that cannot be graphitized at a temperature higher than 2,500° C.), natural graphite particle, artificial graphite particle, electron-conducting polymer, lithium ion-conducting polymer, or a combination thereof, wherein the conductive additive is in electronic contact with the graphene-encapsulated primary particle.

The carbonized resin or polymeric carbon is obtained from pyrolyzation of a polymer selected from the group consisting of phenol-formaldehyde, polyacrylonitrile, styrene-based polymers, cellulosic polymers, epoxy resins, and combinations thereof.

The invention also provides a powder mass of multiple particulates as defined above. Also provided is a lithium battery anode electrode containing a mass of multiple particulates of this type and optional conductive filler (typically 0-15% by weight) and optional binder (typically 0-15% by weight). In some embodiments, the invention provides a lithium battery containing such an anode electrode.

The invention also provides a battery electrode containing the above defined graphene-embraced particulates as an anode active material, wherein the battery is a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal secondary battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-air battery, lithium-selenium battery, sodium-ion battery, sodium metal secondary battery, sodium-sulfur battery, sodium-air battery, magnesium-ion battery, magnesium metal battery, aluminum-ion battery, aluminum metal secondary battery, zinc-ion battery, zinc metal battery, or zinc-air battery.

The present invention also provides a strikingly simple, fast, scalable, environmentally benign, and cost-effective method of producing graphene-embraced (graphene-encapsulated) particulates or secondary particles containing graphene-encapsulated primary particles of anode active material for a wide variety of batteries.

This method entails producing single-layer or few layer graphene sheets directly from a graphitic or carbonaceous material (a graphene source material) and immediately transferring these isolated (peeled-off) graphene sheets onto surfaces of electrode active material particles to form graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated primary particles of anode active material. In an embodiment, the graphitic material or carbonaceous material has never been intercalated, oxidized, or exfoliated and does not include previously produced isolated graphene sheets. These graphene-encapsulated primary particles are then combined with graphene sheets of the same or different type to make secondary particles, each typically containing a cluster of 1-1000 graphene-encapsulated primary particles further embraced by graphene sheets.

Thus, the invention also provides a method of producing a mass of graphene-embraced particulates or secondary particles directly from a graphitic material for use as a lithium-ion battery anode active material. In some embodiments, the method comprises:

-   -   a) mixing multiple particles of a graphitic material and         multiple primary particles of a solid anode active material and         optional ball-milling media to form a mixture in an impacting         chamber of an energy impacting apparatus, wherein preferably the         graphitic material has never been previously intercalated,         oxidized, or exfoliated and the impacting chamber contains         therein no previously produced isolated graphene sheets;     -   b) operating the energy impacting apparatus with a frequency and         an intensity for a length of time sufficient for peeling off         graphene sheets from the particles of graphitic material and         transferring the peeled-off graphene sheets to surfaces of the         primary particles of the solid anode active material and fully         embrace or encapsulate the primary particles to produce         graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated primary particles of         the anode active material inside the impacting chamber;     -   c) recovering the graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated         primary particles from the impacting chamber, wherein at least         one of the embraced or encapsulated primary particles contains         multiple graphene sheets of a first graphene material fully         embracing or encapsulating at least one of the primary         particles; and     -   d) combining a mass of the recovered graphene-embraced or         graphene-encapsulated primary particles, an optional conductive         additive, and graphene sheets of a second graphene material into         a mass of graphene-embraced particulates (e.g. via spray-drying,         spray pyrolysis, atomization, etc.), wherein the particulate         comprises a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated         primary particles of an anode active material, having a size         from 5 nm to 20 μm, wherein the graphene-encapsulated primary         particle is composed of a primary particle of the anode active         material and multiple sheets of first graphene material         overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate the primary         particle and wherein the single or a plurality of         graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional         conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by         multiple sheets of a second graphene material, wherein the first         graphene material is the same as or different from the second         graphene material, and wherein the first graphene and the second         graphene material is each in an amount from 0.01% to 20% by         weight and the optional conductive additive is in an amount from         0% to 50% by weight, all based on the total weight of the         particulate.

In certain specific embodiments, this invention provides a self-embracing or self-encapsulating method of first producing graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated primary particles of an anode active material directly from a graphitic material. Some of these graphene-encapsulated particles are then clustered and packed together and further embraced by exterior graphene sheets. In an embodiment, the method comprises:

-   -   a) mixing multiple particles of a graphitic material and         multiple primary particles of a solid anode active material,         plus optional ball-milling media, to form a mixture in an         impacting chamber of an energy impacting apparatus, wherein         preferably the graphitic material has never been intercalated,         oxidized, or exfoliated and does not include previously produced         isolated graphene sheets. In some embodiments, the impacting         chamber contains no ball-milling media (i.e., the solid         electrode active material particles themselves serve as an         impacting media and no externally added ball-milling media is         needed or involved);     -   b) operating the energy impacting apparatus with a frequency and         an intensity for a length of time sufficient for transferring         graphene sheets from the particles of graphitic material to         surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles to         produce a graphene-embraced electrode active material inside the         impacting chamber (i.e., solid electrode active material         particles impinge upon surfaces of graphitic material particles,         peeling off graphene sheets therefrom, and naturally allowing         the peeled-off graphene sheets to fully wrap around or embrace         the solid electrode active material particles);     -   c) recovering the graphene-embraced primary particles of anode         active material from the impacting chamber (this can be as         simple as removing the cap to the impacting chamber and removing         the particles of graphene-embraced electrode active material);         and     -   d) dispersing these graphene-embraced primary particles in a         liquid suspension containing additional graphene sheets         dispersed in a liquid medium (e.g. water, organic solvent,         alcohol, etc.) to form a slurry and then atomizing the slurry         into droplets (typically 1-100 μm in diameter) and removing the         liquid medium to form secondary particles.         The method further comprises a step of incorporating         particulates of graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated anode         active material into a battery electrode.

There can be some particles of graphitic material that are not fully utilized (i.e., not all graphene sheets have been peeled off) after step b). Hence, in an embodiment, an amount of residual graphitic material remains after step b) and the method further comprises a step of incorporating the graphene-embraced primary particles and the residual graphitic material into secondary particles. The residual graphitic material can serve as a conductive filler in the battery electrode.

In another embodiment, an amount of residual graphitic material remains after step b), and step c) includes a step of partially or completely separating the residual amount of graphitic material from the graphene-embraced primary particles of electrode active material.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of solid electrode active material contain prelithiated or pre-sodiated particles. In other words, before the electrode active material primary particles (such as Si, SiO_(x), x=0.01-1.5, or SnO₂) are embraced by graphene sheets, these particles have been previously intercalated with Li or Na ions (e.g. via electrochemical charging) up to an amount of 0.1% to 30% by weight of Li or Na. This is a highly innovative and unique approach for the following considerations. The intercalation of these particles with Li or Na has allowed the Si, SiO_(x), or SnO₂ particles to expand to a large volume (potentially up to 380% of its original volume). If these prelithiated or pre-sodiated particles are then wrapped around or embraced by graphene sheets to form graphene-encapsulated primary particles, made into secondary particles, and incorporated into an electrode (i.e. anode containing graphene-embraced secondary particles of Si or SnO₂), the electrode would no longer have any significant issues of electrode expansion and expansion-induced failure during subsequent charge-discharge cycles of the lithium- or sodium-ion battery. In other words, the Si, SiO_(x), or SnO₂ primary particles have been provided with expansion space between these particles and the embracing graphene sheets. Our experimental data have surprisingly shown that this strategy leads to significantly longer battery cycle life and more efficient utilization of the electrode active material capacity.

In some embodiments, prior to the instant “graphene direct transfer and embracing process,” the particles of solid electrode active material contain particles pre-coated with a coating layer of a conductive material selected from carbon, pitch, carbonized resin, a conductive polymer, a conductive organic material, a metal coating, a metal oxide shell, or a combination thereof. The coating layer thickness is preferably in the range from 1 nm to 20 μm, preferably from 10 nm to 10 μm, and further preferably from 100 nm to 1 μm.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of solid electrode active material contain particles that are pre-coated with a carbon precursor material selected from a coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, polymer, organic material, or a combination thereof so that the carbon precursor material resides between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the embracing graphene sheets, and the method further contains a step of heat-treating the graphene-embraced electrode active material to convert the carbon precursor material to a carbon material and pores, wherein the pores form empty spaces between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets, and the carbon material is coated on the surfaces of solid electrode active material particles and/or chemically bonds the graphene sheets together.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of solid electrode active material contain particles pre-coated with a sacrificial material selected from a metal, pitch, polymer, organic material, or a combination thereof in such a manner that the sacrificial material resides between surfaces of particles of solid electrode active material and the graphene sheets, and the method further contains a step of partially or completely removing the sacrificial material to form empty spaces between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a step of exposing the graphene-embraced primary particles of electrode active material to a liquid or vapor of a conductive material that is conductive to electrons and/or ions of lithium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, or zinc.

In some embodiments, the electrode active material particles include powder, flakes, beads, pellets, spheres, wires, fibers, filaments, discs, ribbons, or rods, having a diameter or thickness from 10 nm to 20 μm. Preferably, the diameter or thickness is from 1 μm to 100 μm.

In the invented method, the graphitic material may be selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nanofiber, graphite fluoride, chemically modified graphite, mesocarbon microbead, partially crystalline graphite, or a combination thereof.

The method energy impacting apparatus may be a vibratory ball mill, planetary ball mill, high energy mill, basket mill, agitator ball mill, cryogenic ball mill, micro ball mill, tumbler ball mill, continuous ball mill, stirred ball mill, pressurized ball mill, plasma-assisted ball mill, freezer mill, vibratory sieve, bead mill, nano bead mill, ultrasonic homogenizer mill, centrifugal planetary mixer, vacuum ball mill, or resonant acoustic mixer. Optionally, milling media may be added into the impacting chamber and later removed upon completion of the graphene-encapsulated primary particle production procedure.

The procedure of operating the energy impacting apparatus may be conducted in a continuous manner using a continuous energy impacting device

In the graphene-embraced electrode active material particles (the primary particles or secondary particles), the graphene sheets of first graphene or second graphene material contain single-layer graphene sheets. In some embodiments, the graphene sheets contain at least 80% single-layer graphene or at least 80% few-layer graphene having no greater than 10 graphene planes.

The impacting chamber may further contain a functionalizing agent and step (b) of operating the energy impacting apparatus acts to chemically functionalize said graphene sheets with said functionalizing agent.

The functionalizing agent may contain a chemical functional group selected from lithium sulfonate or a chemical group having a conjugated double bond, acidic group, or benzene group, among others, such as the non-limiting examples: lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate, lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzenesulfonate, lithium 2,6-dimethylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, 3,3′-((1,2-dithiane-4,5-diyl)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), 3,3′-((4-mercapto-1,2-phenylene)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), lithium aniline sulfonate, poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, lithium sulfate, lithium phosphate, lithium phosphate monobasic, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptadecafluorooctane-1-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-di-tert-butylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, lithium aniline sulfonate (the sulfonate may be in any of para, meta and ortho positions) and poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate).

The functionalizing agent may contain a chemical functional group selected from alkyl or aryl silane, alkyl or aralkyl group, hydroxyl group, carboxyl group, amine group, sulfonate group (—SO₃H), aldehydic group, quinoidal, fluorocarbon, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the functionalizing agent contains an oxygenated group selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, peroxide, ether, keto, and aldehyde. In some embodiments, the functionalizing agent contains a functional group selected from the group consisting of SO₃H, COOH, NH₂, OH, R′CHOH, CHO, CN, COCl, halide, COSH, SH, COOR′, SR′, SiR′₃, Si(—OR′—)_(y)R′₃−y, Si(—O—SiR′₂—)OR′, R″, Li, AlR′₂, Hg—X, TlZ₂ and Mg—X; wherein y is an integer equal to or less than 3, R′ is hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, or aralkyl, cycloaryl, or poly(alkylether), R″ is fluoroalkyl, fluoroaryl, fluorocycloalkyl, fluoroaralkyl or cycloaryl, X is halide, and Z is carboxylate or trifluoroacetate, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the functionalizing agent contains a functional group is selected from the group consisting of amidoamines, polyamides, aliphatic amines, modified aliphatic amines, cycloaliphatic amines, aromatic amines, anhydrides, ketimines, diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylene-tetramine (TETA), tetraethylene-pentamine (TEPA), polyethylene polyamine, polyamine epoxy adduct, phenolic hardener, non-brominated curing agent, non-amine curatives, and combinations thereof.

The functionalizing agent may contain a functional group selected from OY, NHY, O═C—OY, P═C—NR′Y, O═C—SY, O═C—Y, —CR′1-OY, N′Y or C′Y, and Y is a functional group of a protein, a peptide, an amino acid, an enzyme, an antibody, a nucleotide, an oligonucleotide, an antigen, or an enzyme substrate, enzyme inhibitor or the transition state analog of an enzyme substrate or is selected from R′—OH, R′—NR′₂, R′SH, R′CHO, R′CN, R′X, R′N⁺(R)₃X⁻, R′SiR′₃, R′Si(—OR′—)_(y)R′_(3-y), R′Si(—O—SiR′₂—) OR′, R′—R″, R′—N—CO, (C₂H₄O—)_(w)H, (—C₃H₆O—)_(w)H, (—C₂H₄O)_(w)—R′, (C₃H₆O)_(w)—R′, R′, and w is an integer greater than one and less than 200.

The present invention also provides a mass of graphene-embraced secondary particles of solid active material produced by the aforementioned method, wherein the graphene proportion is from 0.01% to 20% by weight based on the total weight of graphene and solid active material particles combined.

Also provided is a battery electrode containing the graphene-embraced secondary particles electrode active material produced according to the presently invented method, and a battery containing such an electrode. The battery electrode containing the graphene-embraced secondary particles of electrode active material may be a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal secondary battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-air battery, lithium-selenium battery, sodium-ion battery, sodium metal secondary battery, sodium-sulfur battery, sodium-air battery, magnesium-ion battery, magnesium metal battery, aluminum-ion battery, aluminum metal secondary battery, zinc-ion battery, zinc metal battery, or zinc-air battery.

The present invention provides several different configurations of a battery: (a) featuring a doubly graphene-protected anode (containing graphene-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated primary particles), but more conventional cathode; (b) doubly graphene-protected cathode, but more conventional anode; and (c) a doubly graphene-protected anode and a doubly graphene-protected cathode.

It may be noted that the graphene production step per se (peeling off graphene sheets directly from graphite particles and immediately or concurrently transferring these graphene sheets to electrode active material particle surfaces) is quite surprising, considering the fact that prior researchers and manufacturers have focused on more complex, time intensive and costly methods to create graphene in industrial quantities. In other words, it has been generally believed that chemical intercalation and oxidation is needed to produce bulk quantities of isolated graphene sheets (NGPs). The present invention defies this expectation in many ways:

-   -   1. Unlike the chemical intercalation and oxidation (which         requires expansion of inter-graphene spaces, further expansion         or exfoliation of graphene planes, and full separation of         exfoliated graphene sheets), the instant method directly removes         graphene sheets from a source graphitic material and transfers         these graphene sheets to surfaces of electrode active material         particles. No undesirable chemicals (e.g. sulfuric acid and         nitric acid) are used.     -   2. Unlike oxidation and intercalation, pristine graphene sheets         can be transferred onto the electrode active material. The         sheets being free of oxidation damage allow the creation of         graphene-encapsulated particle products with higher electrical         and thermal conductivity.     -   3. Contrary to common production methods, a washing process         requiring substantial amounts of water or solvent is not needed     -   4. Unlike bottom up production methods capable of producing         small graphene sheets, large graphene sheets can be produced         with the instant method.     -   5. Unlike CVD and solution-based metalorganic production         methods, elevated temperatures are not required to reduce         graphene oxide to graphene and metalorganic compounds to pure         metal. This greatly reduces the opportunity for undesirable         diffusion of carbon into the electrode active material.     -   6. Unlike CVD and solution-based metalorganic production         methods, this process is amenable to almost any electrode active         material. The electrode active material does not need to be a         compatible “template” or catalyst, as is required for the CVD         process.     -   7. This direct transfer process does not require the use of         externally added ball milling media (such as zirconia beads or         plastic beads). The electrode active material particles         themselves are the graphene-peeling media. The presence of extra         milling media is optional.     -   8. This method allows the creation of overlapping graphene         sheets, in some way analogous to fish scale, which slide over         one another when the primary particle expands or shrinks,         thereby preventing repeated direct exposure of the primary         particle surface and the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI)         coated thereon to the surrounding electrolyte and, hence,         eliminating repeated breakage and re-formation of SEI during         repeated charges/discharges. Presumably due to this main reason,         the battery cell containing secondary particles featuring such a         multi-level graphene protection strategy usually exhibit an         exceptionally long cycle life.     -   9. The present invention is amenable to industrial scale         production in a continuous energy impact device.     -   10. The redox-forming species attached to graphene surfaces         enable the lithium-ion battery featuring the multi-level         protection strategy the ability to be charged at an ultrahigh         rate without suffering significant capacity reduction commonly         encountered in all prior art lithium batteries.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 A flow chart showing the most commonly used prior art process of producing highly oxidized graphene sheets (or nano graphene platelets, NGPs) that entails tedious chemical oxidation/intercalation, rinsing, and high-temperature exfoliation procedures.

FIG. 2 A diagram showing the presently invented process for producing graphene-embraced or graphene-encapsulated electrode active material particles via an energy impacting apparatus.

FIG. 3 A diagram showing the presently invented process for producing graphene-embraced electrode active material particles via a continuous ball mill.

FIG. 4 Charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring Co₃O₄ particle-based anodes: a) containing un-protected Co₃O₄ particles, b) graphene-encapsulated Co₃O₄ primary particles produced by the instant direct transfer method; and c) graphene-embraced particulates (secondary particles) of graphene-encapsulated Co₃O₄ primary particles.

FIG. 5 Charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring SnO₂ particle-based anodes: the first containing un-protected SnO₂ particles, second containing graphene-encapsulated primary SnO₂ particles produced by the instant direct transfer method, and the third containing graphene-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated primary particles.

FIG. 6 Charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring micron-scaled (3 μm) Si particle-based anodes: a) containing un-protected Si particles, b) graphene-embraced primary Si particles produced by the direct transfer method, and c) graphene-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated Si particles produced by the instant direct transfer method (Si particles themselves being the graphene-peeling agent), followed by slurry spray-drying.

FIG. 7 Discharge capacity values (mAh/g, based on composite weight) of 3 lithium cells featuring lithium iron phosphate (LFP) particle-based cathodes, plotted as a function of discharge C-rates: first one containing un-protected LFO particles (mixed with 12% by weight carbon), second one containing graphene-encapsulated carbon-added LFP primary particles produced by the instant direct transfer method (4% graphene+8% C), and third one RGO-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated primary LFP particles. (1 C rate=complete discharge in 1 hour or 60 minute; 5 C rate=complete discharge in 60/5=12 minutes; 0.1 C rate=complete discharge in 60/0.1=600 minutes or 10 hours)

FIG. 8 Charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring LiV₂O₅ nanorod-based cathodes: a) containing RGO-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated LiV₂O₅ nanorods, b) graphene-embraced LiV₂O₅ nanorods produced by the direct transfer method (approximately 5% graphene+7% C), and c) LiV₂O₅ nanorods protected by a carbon matrix.

FIG. 9(A) SEM image of a representative anode particulate;

FIG. 9(B) SEM image of a representative cathode particulate.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Carbon materials can assume an essentially amorphous structure (glassy carbon), a highly organized crystal (graphite), or a whole range of intermediate structures that are characterized in that various proportions and sizes of graphite crystallites and defects are dispersed in an amorphous matrix. Typically, a graphite crystallite is composed of a number of graphene sheets or basal planes that are bonded together through van der Waals forces in the c-axis direction, the direction perpendicular to the basal plane. These graphite crystallites are typically micron- or nanometer-sized. The graphite crystallites are dispersed in or connected by crystal defects or an amorphous phase in a graphite particle, which can be a graphite flake, carbon/graphite fiber segment, carbon/graphite whisker, or carbon/graphite nanofiber. In other words, graphene planes (hexagonal lattice structure of carbon atoms) constitute a significant portion of a graphite particle.

One preferred specific embodiment of the present invention is a method of peeling off graphene planes of carbon atoms (1-10 planes of atoms that are single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets) that are directly transferred to surfaces of electrode active material particles (the primary particles). A graphene sheet or nano graphene platelet (NGP) is essentially composed of a sheet of graphene plane or multiple sheets of graphene plane stacked and bonded together (typically, on an average, less than 10 sheets per multi-layer platelet). Each graphene plane, also referred to as a graphene sheet or a hexagonal basal plane, comprises a two-dimensional hexagonal structure of carbon atoms. Each platelet has a length and a width parallel to the graphite plane and a thickness orthogonal to the graphite plane. By definition, the thickness of an NGP is 100 nanometers (nm) or smaller, with a single-sheet NGP being as thin as 0.34 nm. However, the NGPs produced with the instant methods are mostly single-layer graphene and some few-layer graphene sheets (<5 layers). The length and width of a NGP are typically between 200 nm and 20 um, but could be longer or shorter, depending upon the sizes of source graphite material particles.

The present invention provides a strikingly simple, fast, scalable, environmentally benign, and cost-effective process that avoids essentially all of the drawbacks associated with prior art processes of producing graphene sheets and obviates the need to execute a separate (additional) process to combine the produced graphene sheets and particles of an electrode active material (anode or cathode active material) together to form a composite or hybrid electrode active material.

As schematically illustrated in FIG. 2, one preferred embodiment of this method entails placing particles of a source graphitic material and particles of a solid electrode active material (without any externally added impacting balls, such as ball-milling media) in an impacting chamber. After loading, the resulting mixture is exposed to impacting energy, which is accomplished, for instance, by rotating the chamber to enable the impacting of the active material particles against graphite particles. These repeated impacting events (occurring in high frequencies and high intensity) act to peel off graphene sheets from the surfaces of graphitic material particles and, immediately and directly, transfer these graphene sheets to the surfaces of the active material particles to form graphene-embraced active material particles. Typically, the entire particle is covered by graphene sheets (fully wrapped around, embraced or encapsulated). This is herein referred to as the “direct transfer” process.

Alternatively, impacting balls (e.g. stainless steel or zirconia beads) may be added into the impacting chambers and, as such, graphene sheets may also be peeled off by the impacting balls and tentatively transferred to the surfaces of these impacting balls first. When the graphene-coated impacting balls subsequently impinge upon the solid electrode active material particles, the graphene sheets are transferred to surfaces of the electrode active material particles to form graphene-coated active material particles. This is an “indirect transfer” process. A major drawback of such an indirect transfer process is the need to separate the externally added impacting balls (e.g. ball-milling media) from the graphene-embraced particles. This is not always possible or economically feasible, however.

In less than two hours (often less than 1 hour) of operating the direct transfer process, most of the constituent graphene sheets of source graphite particles are peeled off, forming mostly single-layer graphene and few-layer graphene (less than 10 graphene planes; mostly less than 5 layers or 5 graphene planes in the present study). Following the direct transfer process (graphene sheets wrapped around active material particles), the residual graphite particles (if present) are separated from the graphene-embraced (graphene-encapsulated) particles using a broad array of methods. Separation or classification of graphene-embraced (graphene-encapsulated) particles from residual graphite particles (if any) can be readily accomplished based on their differences in weight or density, particle sizes, magnetic properties, etc. The resulting graphene-embraced particles are already a two-component material; i.e. they are already “mixed” and there is no need to have a separate process of mixing isolated graphene sheets with electrode active material particles.

In other words, production of graphene sheets and coating of graphene sheets onto primary particle surfaces of electrode active materials are essentially accomplished concurrently in one operation. This is in stark contrast to the traditional processes of producing graphene sheets first and then subsequently mixing the graphene sheets with an active material. Traditional dry mixing typically does not result in homogeneous mixing or dispersion of two or multiple components. It is also challenging to properly disperse nanomaterials in a solvent to form a battery slurry mass for coating on a current collector, which is the most commonly used electrode production process for the lithium battery. The presently invented graphene-embraced secondary particles, typically from 1 to 50 um in size, have helped to overcome this dispersion issue.

The graphene sheets encapsulating particles of the electrode active material are herein referred to as the first graphene material. The resulting graphene-encapsulated primary particles and graphene sheets of a second graphene material are then combined into secondary particles (or particulates) having sheets of the second graphene material wrapped around or embraced around the exterior surfaces of secondary particles.

The graphene-encapsulated primary particles of the anode active material, containing first graphene material attached with or without a chemical functional group, along with sheets of a second graphene material, can be readily dispersed in a broad array of liquid mediums, such as water, alcohol, and organic solvent. For the preparation of graphene-protected particulates or secondary particles, multiple graphene-encapsulated primary particles, optional conductive additive, and graphene sheets of the second graphene material are dispersed in a desired liquid medium to form a suspension or slurry. This suspension or slurry may be made into secondary particles by drying the suspension or slurry in a controlled manner, allowing the graphene-encapsulated primary particles, optional conductive additive, and the graphene sheets of second graphene type to self-assemble into secondary particles or particulates wherein the graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with optional conductive additive, are clustered together to form a particulate entity which is embraced by multiple sheets of the second graphene material. The particulates are typically substantially spherical or ellipsoidal in shape (e.g. FIG. 9(A) and FIG. 9(B)).

These exterior graphene sheets (the second graphene material) may be the same as or different than the first graphene material. In a preferred embodiment, the first graphene material is a pristine material (having highest electrical conductivity) and the second graphene material is a graphene oxide (having good self-assembling capability).

The step of drying the multi-component suspension to form the secondary particles is most preferably conducted using a spray-drying, spray-pyrolysis, or fluidized-bed drying procedure, or any procedure that involves an atomization or aerosolizing step.

Thus, the present invention provides a graphene-embraced particulate (secondary particle) for use as a lithium-ion battery electrode active material (anode or cathode active material), wherein the particulate comprises a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles of an anode active material or a cathode active material, having a size from 5 nm to 20 um, wherein the graphene-encapsulated primary particle is composed of a primary particle of the electrode active material and multiple sheets of a first graphene material overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate the primary particle (no resin binder is used; graphene sheets naturally wrapping around the particles in a tight and conformal manner) and wherein the single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by multiple sheets of a second graphene material (these graphene sheets also not bonded by a resin binder either), wherein the first graphene material is the same as or different from the second graphene material, and wherein the first graphene material and the second graphene material is each in an amount from 0.01% to 20% by weight and the optional conductive additive is in an amount from 0% to 50% by weight, all based on the total weight of the particulate.

In the particulate, a surface of the first graphene material sheet or the second graphene material sheet is in physical contact with or bonded to a chemical species (such as sulfonate or sulfonyl-containing group, phosphate, or —NH₂-containing groups) forming a redox pair with lithium. These redox pairs may be selected from lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate, lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzene-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-dimethylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, 3,3′-((1,2-dithiane-4,5-diyl)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), 3,3′-((4-mercapto-1,2-phenylene)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), lithium aniline sulfonate, poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, lithium sulfate, lithium phosphate, lithium phosphate monobasic, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptadecafluorooctane-1-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-di-tert-butylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, lithium aniline sulfonate (wherein the sulfonate may be in any of para, meta and ortho positions), poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, a sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.

The single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets wrapped around the primary particles and/or those single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets wrapped around the secondary particles provide high specific surface areas where the electric double layers of charges (EDLC, a type of supercapacitance mechanism) can be formed during the charging procedure of this energy storage system. In addition, the redox-forming species can rapidly and reversibly form a redox pair with lithium; thereby providing additional mechanisms of storing lithium ions (pseudo-capacitance type of mechanism). Graphene sheets appear to provide an exceptionally high-conductivity environment amenable to improved response time of these redox pairs. As such, the co-existence of graphene sheets and the redox-forming species appear to provide unexpected synergistic effects in terms of rapidly storing charges. These reversible charge storage mechanisms are fast since these mechanisms do not require slow solid-state diffusion (intercalation) of lithium ions. These added charge storage mechanisms enable the lithium-ion battery to become fast-chargeable, from traditionally 1 C rate to even >50 C rate.

The sulfonated polymer can help support or anchor the lower-molecular weight redox species, making the configuration more robust. In addition, the sulfonyl groups attached to these sulfonated polymers are found to be capable of forming redox pairs with lithium as well. Preferably, the polymer has a high degree of sulfonation (% of —H, —Cl, etc. that has been replaced by sulfonyl group) from 10% to 99%, preferably from 50% to 99%. These sulfonyl groups, when disposed at or near graphene surfaces, also can tentatively hold lithium ions together without accumulating metal atoms on electrode active material particle surfaces when the lithium-ion battery is subjected to fast-charging conditions (e.g. >5 C rate). This metallization phenomenon on anode active material particle surfaces could lead to lithium dendrite formation and possible fire or explosion hazards.

The sulfonated polymer may be selected from sulfonated polyaniline, sulfonated polypyrrole, a sulfonated polythiophene, sulfonated polyfuran, a sulfonated bi-cyclic polymer, or a combination thereof. These polymers, prior to being sulfonated, are intrinsically electron-conducting conjugate polymers. Sulfonation can reduce the electron conductivity of these polymers, but imparts lithium ion conductivity thereto.

The sulfonated polymer may be a sulfonated rubber or elastomer selected from sulfonated natural polyisoprene, sulfonated synthetic polyisoprene, sulfonated polybutadiene, sulfonated chloroprene rubber, sulfonated polychloroprene, sulfonated butyl rubber, sulfonated styrene-butadiene rubber, sulfonated nitrile rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-octane) elastomer, sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, sulfonated styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, sulfonated epichlorohydrin rubber, sulfonated polyacrylic rubber, sulfonated silicone rubber, sulfonated fluorosilicone rubber, sulfonated perfluoroelastomers, sulfonated polyether block amides, sulfonated chlorosulfonated polyethylene, sulfonated ethylene-vinyl acetate, sulfonated thermoplastic elastomer, sulfonated protein resilin, sulfonated protein elastin, sulfonated ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, sulfonated polyurethane, sulfonated urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetra-fluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer, sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride, sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene, polybenzimidazole, and chemical derivatives, copolymers, and blends thereof.

The aforementioned redox-forming species and sulfonated polymers may be coated onto surfaces of graphene-encapsulated primary particles and/or surfaces of graphene-embraced secondary particles using any known techniques, such as dipping, spraying, spray-coating, fluidized spray-coating, and spray-drying.

As shown in FIG. 1, the prior art chemical processes for producing graphene sheets or platelets alone typically involve immersing graphite powder in a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and an oxidizer, such as potassium permanganate or sodium perchlorate, forming a reacting mass that requires typically 5-120 hours to complete the chemical intercalation/oxidation reaction. Once the reaction is completed, the slurry is subjected to repeated steps of rinsing and washing with water and then subjected to drying treatments to remove water. The dried powder, referred to as graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or graphite oxide (GO), is then subjected to a thermal shock treatment. This can be accomplished by placing GIC in a furnace pre-set at a temperature of typically 800-1100° C. (more typically 950-1050° C.). The resulting products are typically highly oxidized graphene (i.e. graphene oxide with a high oxygen content), which must be chemically or thermal reduced to obtain reduced graphene oxide (RGO). RGO is found to contain a high defect population and, hence, is not as conducting as pristine graphene. We have observed that that the pristine graphene paper (prepared by vacuum-assisted filtration of pristine graphene sheets, as herein prepared) exhibit electrical conductivity values in the range from 1,500-4,500 S/cm. In contrast, the RGO paper prepared by the same paper-making procedure typically exhibits electrical conductivity values in the range from 100-1,000 S/cm.

In the most common implementation of ball mill mixing, previously produced graphene sheets or platelets are added to electrode active material powders. Impact energy is applied via ball mill for a period of time to disperse graphene platelets or sheets in the powder. This is often carried out in a liquid (solvent) solution. The disadvantages of this graphene/active material mixing process are obvious—graphene is a costly input material, solvent recovery is required, and most significantly, the graphene input into the process has been damaged by oxidation during prior processing. This reduces desirable end properties, such as thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity.

Another prior art process is coating of CVD onto metal nanoparticles. This is the most limited of all prior art methods, being possible only on certain metals that are suitable catalysts for facilitating decomposition of hydrocarbon gas to form carbon atoms and as templates for graphene to grow on. As a “bottom up” graphene production method, it requires costly capital equipment and costly input materials.

In all these prior art processes for producing graphene-coated electrode active material particles, isolated graphene sheets and particles of the active material are dispersed in a solvent (e.g. NMP) to form a slurry. The slurry is then dried (e.g. using spray drying) to form graphene-active material composite particles. These composites do not necessarily have the morphology or structure of active material particles being fully wrapped around or embraced.

In contrast, the presently invented impacting process entails combining graphene production, functionalization (if desired), and mixing of graphene sheets with electrode active material particles in a single operation. This fast and environmentally benign process not only avoids significant chemical usage, but also produces embracing graphene sheets of higher quality—pristine graphene as opposed to thermally reduced graphene oxide produced by the prior art process. Pristine graphene enables the creation of embraced particles with higher electrical and thermal conductivity.

Although the mechanisms remain incompletely understood, this revolutionary process of the present invention has essentially eliminated the conventionally required functions of graphene plane expansion, intercalant penetration, exfoliation, and separation of graphene sheets and replace it with a single, entirely mechanical exfoliation process. The whole process can take less than 2 hours (typically 10 minutes to 1 hour), and can be done with no added chemicals. This is absolutely stunning, a shocking surprise to even those top scientists and engineers or those of extraordinary ability in the art.

Another surprising result of the present study is the observation that a wide variety of carbonaceous and graphitic materials can be directly processed without any particle size reduction or pretreatment. The particle size of graphite can be smaller than, comparable to, or larger than the particle size of the electrode active material primary particles. The graphitic material may be selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, mesocarbon microbead, graphite fiber, graphitic nanofiber, graphite oxide, graphite fluoride, chemically modified graphite, exfoliated graphite, or a combination thereof. It may be noted that the graphitic material used for the prior art chemical production and reduction of graphene oxide requires size reduction to 75 um or less in average particle size. This process requires size reduction equipment (for example hammer mills or screening mills), energy input, and dust mitigation. By contrast, the energy impacting device method can accept almost any size of graphitic material. A starting graphitic material of several mm or cm in size or larger or a starting material as small as nanoscaled has been successfully processed to create graphene-coated or graphene-embedded particles of cathode or anode active materials. The only size limitation is the chamber capacity of the energy impacting device; but this chamber can be very large (industry-scaled).

The presently invented process is capable of producing single-layer graphene sheets that completely wrap around the primary particles of an electrode active material. In many examples, the graphene sheets produced contain at least 80% single-layer graphene sheets. The graphene produced can contain pristine graphene, oxidized graphene with less than 5% oxygen content by weight, graphene fluoride, graphene oxide with less than 5% fluorine by weight, graphene with a carbon content of no less than 95% by weight, or functionalized graphene.

The presently invented process does not involve the production of GIC and, hence, does not require the exfoliation of GIC at a high exfoliation temperature (e.g. 800-1,100° C.). This is another major advantage from environmental protection perspective. The prior art processes require the preparation of dried GICs containing sulfuric acid and nitric acid intentionally implemented in the inter-graphene spaces and, hence, necessarily involve the decomposition of H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ to produce volatile gases (e.g. NO_(x) and SO_(x)) that are highly regulated environmental hazards. The presently invented process completely obviates the need to decompose H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ and, hence, is environmentally benign. No undesirable gases are released into the atmosphere during the combined graphite expansion/exfoliation/separation process of the present invention.

In a desired embodiment, the presently invented method is carried out in an automated and/or continuous manner. For instance, as illustrated in FIG. 3, the mixture of graphite particles 1 and electrode active material particles 2 is delivered by a conveyer belt 3 and fed into a continuous ball mill 4. After ball milling to form graphene-embraced particles, the product mixture (possibly also containing some residual graphite particles) is discharged from the ball mill apparatus 4 into a screening device (e.g. a rotary drum 5) to separate graphene-embraced particles from residual graphite particles (if any). This separation operation may be assisted by a magnetic separator 6 if the electrode active material is ferromagnetic (e.g. containing Fe, Co, Ni, or Mn-based metal in some desired electronic configuration). The graphene-embraced particles may be delivered into a powder classifier, a cyclone, and or an electrostatic separator. The particles may be further processed, if so desired, by melting 7, pressing 8, or grinding/pelletizing apparatus 9. These procedures can be fully automated. The process may include characterization or classification of the output material and recycling of insufficiently processed material into the continuous energy impacting device. The process may include weight monitoring of the load in the continuous energy impacting device to optimize material properties and throughput.

The electrode active materials that are placed into the impacting chamber can be an anode active material or a cathode active material. For the anode active materials, those materials capable of storing lithium ions greater than 372 mAh/g (theoretical capacity of natural graphite) are particularly desirable. Examples of these high-capacity anode active materials are Si, Ge, Sn, SnO₂, Co₃O₄, etc. As discussed earlier, these materials, if implemented in the anode, have the tendency to expand and contract when the battery is charged and discharged. At the electrode level, the expansion and contraction of the anode active material can lead to expansion and contraction of the anode, causing mechanical instability of the battery cell. At the anode active material level, repeated expansion/contraction of particles of Si, SiO_(x), Ge, Sn, SnO₂, Co₃O₄, etc. quickly leads to pulverization of these particles and rapid capacity decay of the electrode.

Thus, for the purpose of addressing these problems, the primary particles of solid electrode active material may be reduced to smaller than 150 nm (more preferably <100 nm) in size and/or contain prelithiated or pre-sodiated particles. The particle size reduction can address the particle pulverization problem. We have surprisingly observed that the low first-cycle efficiency and repeated SEI breakage/re-formation problems can be at least partially overcome using the prelithiation strategy. The encapsulation of primary particles of high-capacity anode materials (e.g. Si, SiO_(x), Ge, Sn, SnO₂, Co₃O₄, etc.) or high-capacity cathode materials (S, lithium polysulfide, etc.) with overlapping graphene sheets that are capable of sliding over one another enables the primary particles to expand and shrink without exposing the primary particles to the surrounding electrolyte can help reduce the capacity decay problem.

Before the electrode active material particles (such as Si, Ge, Sn, SnO₂, SiO_(x), Co₃O₄, etc.) are embraced by graphene sheets, these particles may be previously intercalated with Li or Na ions (e.g. via electrochemical charging). This is a highly innovative and unique approach based on the following considerations. The intercalation of these particles with Li or Na would allow these particles to expand to a large volume or to its full capacity (potentially up to 380% of its original volume). If these prelithiated or pre-sodiated particles are then wrapped around or fully embraced by graphene sheets and incorporated into an electrode (e.g. anode containing graphene-embraced Si or SnO₂ particles), the electrode would no longer have any significant issues of electrode expansion and expansion-induced failure during subsequent charge-discharge cycles of the lithium- or sodium-ion battery. In other words, the Si or SnO₂ particles have been expanded to their maximum volume (during battery charging) and they can only shrink (during subsequent battery discharge). These contracted particles have been previously provided with expansion space between these particles and the embracing graphene sheets. Our experimental data have shown that this strategy surprisingly leads to significantly longer battery cycle life and better utilization of the electrode active material capacity.

In some embodiments, prior to the instant procedures of graphene production, direct transfer and embracing process, the particles of solid electrode active material contain particles that are pre-coated with a coating of a conductive material selected from carbon, pitch, carbonized resin, a conductive polymer, a conductive organic material, a metal coating, a metal oxide shell, or a combination thereof. The coating layer thickness is preferably in the range from 1 nm to 10 μm, preferably from 10 nm to 1 μm, and further preferably from 20 nm to 200 nm. This coating is implemented for the purpose of establishing a solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) to increase the useful cycle life of a lithium-ion or sodium-ion battery.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of solid electrode active material contain particles that are pre-coated with a carbon precursor material selected from a coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, polymer, organic material, or a combination thereof so that the carbon precursor material resides between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets, and the method further contains a step of heat-treating the graphene-embraced electrode active material to convert the carbon precursor material to a carbon material and pores, wherein the pores form empty spaces between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets and the carbon material is coated on the surfaces of solid electrode active material particles and/or chemically bonds the graphene sheets together. The carbon material helps to completely seal off the embracing graphene sheets to prevent direct contact of the embraced anode active material with liquid electrolyte, which otherwise continues to form additional SEI via continuously consuming the lithium ions or solvent in the electrolyte, leading to rapid capacity decay.

In some embodiments, the primary particles of solid electrode active material contain particles pre-coated with a sacrificial material selected from a metal, pitch, polymer, organic material, or a combination thereof in such a manner that the sacrificial material resides between surfaces of solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets, and the method further contains a step of partially or completely removing the sacrificial material to form empty spaces between surfaces of the solid electrode active material particles and the graphene sheets. The empty spaces can accommodate the expansion of embraced active material particles without breaking the embraced particles.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a step of exposing the graphene-embraced electrode active material to a liquid or vapor of a conductive material that is conductive to electrons and/or ions of lithium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, or zinc. This procedure serves to provide a stable SEI or to make the SEI more stable.

The particles of electrode active material may be an anode active material selected from the group consisting of: (A) lithiated and un-lithiated silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (B) lithiated and un-lithiated alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (C) lithiated and un-lithiated oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (D) lithiated and un-lithiated salts and hydroxides of Sn; (E) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; and combinations thereof. Both sodiated and un-sodiated versions of the materials in the above list are also anode active materials for sodium-ion batteries.

The electrode active material may be a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, an intrinsically conducting polymer (known to be capable of string lithium ions), a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide, or a combination thereof. The metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, sodium cobalt oxide sodium nickel oxide, sodium manganese oxide, sodium vanadium oxide, sodium-mixed metal oxide, sodium iron phosphate, sodium manganese phosphate, sodium vanadium phosphate, sodium mixed metal phosphate, transition metal sulfide, lithium polysulfide, sodium polysulfide, magnesium polysulfide, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the electrode active material may be a cathode active material selected from sulfur, sulfur compound, sulfur-carbon composite, sulfur-polymer composite, lithium polysulfide, transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof. This group of materials is particularly suitable for use as a cathode active material of a lithium metal battery.

The metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide contains a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5. In some embodiments, the metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide is selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

The inorganic material may be selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

The organic material or polymeric material may be selected from poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof. These compounds are preferably mixed with a conducting material to improve their electrical conductivity, rigidity and strength so as to enable the peeling-off of graphene sheets from the graphitic material particles.

The thioether polymer in the above list may be selected from poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In some embodiments, the organic material contains a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. These compounds are preferably mixed with a conducting material to improve their electrical conductivity and rigidity so as to enable the peeling-off of graphene sheets from the graphitic material particles.

In some embodiments, the electrode active material particles include powder, flakes, beads, pellets, spheres, wires, fibers, filaments, discs, ribbons, or rods, having a diameter or thickness from 10 nm to 20 μm. Preferably, the diameter or thickness is from 1 μm to 100 μm.

In the invented method, the graphitic material may be selected from natural graphite, synthetic graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, graphite fiber, graphitic nanofiber, graphite fluoride, chemically modified graphite, mesocarbon microbead, partially crystalline graphite, or a combination thereof.

The energy impacting apparatus may be a vibratory ball mill, planetary ball mill, high energy mill, basket mill, agitator ball mill, cryogenic ball mill, micro ball mill, tumbler ball mill, continuous ball mill, stirred ball mill, pressurized ball mill, plasma-assisted ball mill, freezer mill, vibratory sieve, bead mill, nano bead mill, ultrasonic homogenizer mill, centrifugal planetary mixer, vacuum ball mill, or resonant acoustic mixer. The procedure of operating the energy impacting apparatus may be conducted in a continuous manner using a continuous energy impacting device

Graphene sheets transferred to electrode active material surfaces have a significant proportion of surfaces that correspond to the edge planes of graphite crystals. The carbon atoms at the edge planes are reactive and must contain some heteroatom or group to satisfy carbon valency. There are many types of functional groups (e.g. hydroxyl and carboxylic) that are naturally present at the edge or surface of graphene nanoplatelets produced through transfer to a solid carrier particle. The impact-induced kinetic energy is of sufficient energy and intensity to chemically activate the edges and even surfaces of graphene sheets embraced around active material particles (e.g. creating highly active sites or free radicals). Provided that certain chemical species containing desired chemical function groups (e.g. OH—, —COOH, —NH₂, Br—, etc.) are included in the impacting chamber, these functional groups can be imparted to graphene edges and/or surfaces. In other words, production and chemical functionalization of graphene sheets can be accomplished concurrently by including appropriate chemical compounds in the impacting chamber. In summary, a major advantage of the present invention over other processes is the simplicity of simultaneous production and modification of graphene surface chemistry for improved battery performance.

Graphene platelets derived by this process may be functionalized through the inclusion of various chemical species in the impacting chamber. In each group of chemical species discussed below, we selected 2 or 3 chemical species for functionalization studies.

In one preferred group of chemical agents, the resulting functionalized NGP may broadly have the following formula(e): [NGP]—R_(m), wherein m is the number of different functional group types (typically between 1 and 5), R is selected from SO₃H, COOH, NH₂, OH, R′CHOH, CHO, CN, COCl, halide, COSH, SH, COOR′, SR′, SiR′₃, Si(—O—SiR′₂—)OR′, R″, Li, AlR′₂, Hg—X, TlZ₂ and Mg—X; wherein y is an integer equal to or less than 3, R′ is hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, or aralkyl, cycloaryl, or poly(alkylether), R″ is fluoroalkyl, fluoroaryl, fluorocycloalkyl, fluoroaralkyl or cycloaryl, X is halide, and Z is carboxylate or trifluoroacetate.

Graphene-embraced electrode active material particles may be used to improve the mechanical properties, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of an electrode. For enhanced lithium-capturing and storing capability, the functional group —NH₂ and —OH are of particular interest. For example, diethylenetriamine (DETA) has three —NH₂ groups. If DETA is included in the impacting chamber, one of the three —NH₂ groups may be bonded to the edge or surface of a graphene sheet and the remaining two un-reacted —NH₂ groups will be available for reversibly capturing a lithium or sodium atom and forming a redox pair therewith. Such an arrangement provides an additional mechanism for storing lithium or sodium ions in a battery electrode.

Other useful chemical functional groups or reactive molecules may be selected from the group consisting of amidoamines, polyamides, aliphatic amines, modified aliphatic amines, cycloaliphatic amines, aromatic amines, anhydrides, ketimines, diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylene-tetramine (TETA), tetraethylene-pentamine (TEPA), hexamethylenetetramine, polyethylene polyamine, polyamine epoxy adduct, phenolic hardener, non-brominated curing agent, non-amine curatives, and combinations thereof. These functional groups are multi-functional, with the capability of reacting with at least two chemical species from at least two ends. Most importantly, they are capable of bonding to the edge or surface of graphene using one of their ends and, during subsequent epoxy curing stage, are able to react with epoxide or epoxy resin material at one or two other ends.

The above-described [NGP]—R_(m) may be further functionalized. This can be conducted by opening up the lid of an impacting chamber after the —R_(m) groups have been attached to graphene sheets and then adding the new functionalizing agents to the impacting chamber and resuming the impacting operation. The resulting graphene sheets or platelets include compositions of the formula: [NGP]-A_(m), where A is selected from OY, NHY, O═C—OY, P═C—NR′Y, O═C—SY, O═C—Y, —CR′1-OY, N′Y or C′Y, and Y is an appropriate functional group of a protein, a peptide, an amino acid, an enzyme, an antibody, a nucleotide, an oligonucleotide, an antigen, or an enzyme substrate, enzyme inhibitor or the transition state analog of an enzyme substrate or is selected from R′—OH, R′—NR′₂, R′SH, R′CHO, R′CN, R′X, R′N⁺(R′)₃X⁻, R′SiR′₃, R′Si(—OR′—)_(y)R′_(3-y), R′Si(—O—SiR′₂—)OR′, R′—R″, R′—N—CO, (C₂H₄O—)_(w)H, (—C₃H₆O—)_(w)H, (—C₂H₄O)_(w)—R′, (C₃H₆O)_(w)—R′, R′, and w is an integer greater than one and less than 200.

The NGPs may also be functionalized to produce compositions having the formula: [NGP]—[R′-A]_(m), where m, R′ and A are as defined above. The compositions of the invention also include NGPs upon which certain cyclic compounds are adsorbed. These include compositions of matter of the formula: [NGP]—[X—R_(a)]_(m), where a is zero or a number less than 10, X is a polynuclear aromatic, polyheteronuclear aromatic or metallopolyheteronuclear aromatic moiety and R is as defined above. Preferred cyclic compounds are planar. More preferred cyclic compounds for adsorption are porphyrins and phthalocyanines. The adsorbed cyclic compounds may be functionalized. Such compositions include compounds of the formula, [NGP]—[X-A_(a)]_(m), where m, a, X and A are as defined above.

The functionalized NGPs of the instant invention can be prepared by sulfonation, electrophilic addition to deoxygenated platelet surfaces, or metallation. The graphitic platelets can be processed prior to being contacted with a functionalizing agent. Such processing may include dispersing the platelets in a solvent. In some instances the platelets may then be filtered and dried prior to contact. One particularly useful type of functional group is the carboxylic acid moieties, which naturally exist on the surfaces of NGPs if they are prepared from the acid intercalation route discussed earlier. If carboxylic acid functionalization is needed, the NGPs may be subjected to chlorate, nitric acid, or ammonium persulfate oxidation.

Carboxylic acid functionalized graphitic platelets are particularly useful because they can serve as the starting point for preparing other types of functionalized NGPs. For example, alcohols or amides can be easily linked to the acid to give stable esters or amides. If the alcohol or amine is part of a di- or poly-functional molecule, then linkage through the O- or NH-leaves the other functionalities as pendant groups. These reactions can be carried out using any of the methods developed for esterifying or aminating carboxylic acids with alcohols or amines as known in the art. Examples of these methods can be found in G. W. Anderson, et al., J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 86, 1839 (1964), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Amino groups can be introduced directly onto graphitic platelets by treating the platelets with nitric acid and sulfuric acid to obtain nitrated platelets, then chemically reducing the nitrated form with a reducing agent, such as sodium dithionite, to obtain amino-functionalized platelets. Functionalization of the graphene-coated inorganic particles may be used as a method to introduce dopants into the electrode active material.

The following examples serve to provide the best modes of practice for the present invention and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention:

Example 1: Graphene Embraced Particles of Electrode Active Materials

Several types of electrode active materials (both anode and cathode active materials) in a fine powder form were investigated. These include Co₃O₄, Si, LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), lithium iron phosphate, etc., which are used as examples to illustrate the best mode of practice. These active materials either were prepared in house or were commercially available.

In a typical experiment, 1 kg of electrode active material powder and 100 grams of natural flake graphite, 50 mesh (average particle size 0.18 mm; Asbury Carbons, Asbury N.J.) were placed in a high-energy ball mill container. The ball mill was operated at 300 rpm for 0.5 to 4 hours. The container lid was then removed and particles of the active materials were found to be fully coated (embraced or encapsulated) with a dark layer, which was verified to be graphene by Raman spectroscopy. The mass of processed material was placed over a 50 mesh sieve and, in some cases, a small amount of unprocessed flake graphite was removed.

In certain samples, the graphene-encapsulated primary particles were dip-coated with several different redox-forming species, including lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (Schematic 1), lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzenesulfonate (Schematic 2), poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate (Schematic 3), and poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid) (du Pont Nafion), respectively.

These graphene-encapsulated primary particles were then dispersed in a graphene oxide (GO)/water suspension to obtain slurries having a solid content from approximately 0.5% to 20%. These slurries were then spray-dried to prepare secondary particles or particulates containing clusters of pristine graphene-encapsulated primary particles that are embraced with GO sheets. These particulates were partially reduced at 150° C. under a H₂/N₂ flowing condition for 5 hours. Some of the secondary particles (with or without a redox pair species bonded to graphene sheet surfaces on primary particles) were further dip-coated with lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (Schematic 1), lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzenesulfonate (Schematic 2), poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate (Schematic 3), and poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), respectively.

We have observed that by attaching any of these redox-forming species to either the interior graphene sheets (those encapsulating primary particles) or the exterior graphene sheets (those embracing the secondary particles) one enables the resulting lithium-ion batteries to be fast-charged at a rate of 10 C to 30 C with only a 10% capacity reduction as compared to the battery measured at a rate of 0.3 C. In contrast, when recharged at a high C rate (e.g. 10 C), the capacity of the battery is less than 50% of the original capacity measured at 0.3 C rate.

Example 2: Functionalized Graphene-Encapsulated Sn Particles

The process of example 1 was replicated with the inclusion of 50 grams of urea as a nitrogen source. The coated powder created was functionalized graphene-encapsulated Sn, and multiple functionalized graphene-encapsulated particles were further embraced with reduced GO sheets prior to being incorporated as an anode active material in a lithium-ion battery. It may be noted that chemical functionalization is used to improve wettability of the encapsulated primary particles to facilitate self-assembling graphene-embraced particulates.

Some of the secondary particles were further coated with a thin layer of lithium sulfate (Schematic 4), lithium phosphate (Schematic 5), and sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), respectively, using spray-drying of slurries containing particulates and the redox species.

Again, the presently invented strategy enables the lithium-ion batteries to be rechargeable up to 85% of the rated maximum capacity even at a very high chare rate (e.g. 20 C to 50 C).

Example 3: Graphene-Embraced SnO₂ Particles and Selected Cathode Particles (NCM)

In an experiment, 2 grams of 99.9% purity tin oxide powder (90 nm diameter) and 0.25 grams highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) were placed in a resonant acoustic mill and processed for 5 minutes. For comparison, the same experiment was conducted, but the milling container further contains zirconia milling beads. We were surprised to discover that the former process (tin oxide particles serving as the milling media per se without the externally added zirconia milling beads) led to mostly single-particle particulate (each particulate contains one particle encapsulated by graphene sheets). In contrast, with the presence of externally added milling beads, a graphene-embraced particulate tends to contain multiple tin oxide particles (typically 3-50) wrapped around by graphene sheets. These same results were also observed for most of metal oxide-based electrode active materials (both anode and cathode). We have further observed that encapsulated single-particle particulates can be more easily made into second graphene material sheet-embraced particulates having the most desired secondary particle sizes (i.e. from 5 um to 20 um in diameter). Also first graphene material-encapsulated single primary particles tend to lead to a higher specific capacity (especially under high-rate conditions) and longer battery longer cycle life as compared to multiple primary particles encapsulated by graphene sheets of the first graphene material. The former particulates have the advantage that practically every primary particle is embraced by a highly conducting graphene material and, as such, there is essentially no disruption of electron-conducting pathways in the resulting electrode (anode or cathode electrode).

Example 4: Graphene-Encapsulated Si Micron Particles

In a first experiment, 500 g of Si powder (particle diameter ˜3 um) and 50 grams of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) were placed in a high-intensity ball mill. The mill was operated for 20 minutes, after which the container lid was opened and un-processed HOPG was removed by a 50 mesh sieve. The Si powder was coated with a dark layer, which was verified to be graphene by Raman spectroscopy.

In a second experiment, micron-scaled Si particles from the same batch were pre-coated with a layer of phenolic resin using a micro-encapsulation method that includes preparing solution of phenolic resin monomers, dispersing Si particles in this solution to form a slurry, and spry-drying the slurry to form resin-encapsulated Si particles. The coated resin was then cured. Then, 500 g of resin-encapsulated Si particles and 50 grams of HOPG were placed in a high-intensity ball mill. The mill was operated for 20 minutes, after which the container lid was opened and un-processed HOPG was removed by a 50 mesh sieve. The resin-encapsulated Si particles (resin layer varied from 0.5 to 3.5 um) were now also embraced with graphene sheets. These graphene-embraced resin-encapsulated particles were then subjected to a heat treatment (up to 600° C.) that converted cured phenolic resin to carbon. The converted carbon was mostly deposited on the exterior surface of the Si particles, leaving behind a gap or pores between the Si particle surface and the encapsulating graphene shell. This gap provides room to accommodate the volume expansion of the Si particle when the lithium-ion battery is charged. Such a strategy leads to improved battery cycle life.

In a third experiment, the Si particles were subjected to electrochemical prelithiation to prepare several samples containing from 5% to 54% Li. Prelithiation of an electrode active material means the material is intercalated or loaded with lithium before a battery cell is made. Various prelithiated Si particles (primary particles) were then subjected to the presently invented graphene encapsulation treatment, followed by the spray-drying formation of graphene-embraced particulates. The resulting graphene-encapsulated prelithiated Si particles, further embraced by second type of graphene sheets, were incorporated as an anode active material in several lithium-ion cells.

Example 5: Graphene-Embraced Ge Particles (Using Mesocarbon Microbeads or MCMBs as the Graphene Source)

In one example, 500 grams of B-doped Ge powder (anode active material) and 10 grams of MCMBs (China Steel Chemical Co., Taiwan) were placed in a ball mill, and processed for 3 hours. In separate experiments, un-processed MCMB was removed by sieving, air classification, and settling in a solvent solution. The graphene loading of the coated particles was estimated to be 1.4 weight %. The graphene-encapsulated Ge primary particles were then made into secondary particles using ultrasonic spraying of slurries containing encapsulated Ge primary particles and GO and graphene fluoride sheets, respectively.

Example 6: Graphene Encapsulation Via Direct Transfer Vs. Chemical Production of Graphene Sheets Plus Freezer Milling

A sample of graphene-embraced lithium titanate particles was prepared via the presently invented direct transfer method (using lithium titanate particles themselves as the milling media and natural graphite as the graphene source).

In a separate experiment, 10 grams of lithium titanate powder and 1 gram of reduced graphene oxide sheets (produced with the Hummer's method explained below) were placed in a freezer mill (Spex Mill, Spex Sample Prep, Metuchen N.J.) and processed for 10 minutes. In this experiment, graphite oxide as prepared by oxidation of graphite flakes with sulfuric acid, nitrate, and permanganate according to the method of Hummers [U.S. Pat. No. 2,798,878, Jul. 9, 1957]. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The graphite oxide was repeatedly washed in a 5% solution of HCl to remove the majority of the sulfate ions. The sample was then washed repeatedly with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was neutral. The slurry was spray-dried and placed in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours. The interlayer spacing of the resulting laminar graphite oxide was determined by the Debey-Scherrer X-ray technique to be approximately 0.73 nm (7.3 A). A sample of this material was subsequently transferred to a furnace pre-set at 650° C. for 4 minutes for exfoliation and heated in an inert atmosphere furnace at 1200° C. for 4 hours to create a low density powder comprised of few layer reduced graphene oxide (RGO). Surface area was measured via nitrogen adsorption BET.

As discussed in the Background section, there are seven (7) major problems associated with the chemical method of graphene production. In addition, the graphene sheets, once produced, tend to result in the formation of multiple-particle particulates that each contains a plurality of electrode active material particles embraced or encapsulated by graphene sheets. They appear to be incapable of encapsulating a single particle.

Example 7: Graphene-Encapsulated Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) as a Cathode Active Material for a Lithium Metal Battery

LFP powder, un-coated or carbon-coated, is commercially available from several sources. The carbon-coated LFP powder and un-coated LFP powder samples were separately mixed with natural graphite particles in ball mill pots of a high-intensity ball mill apparatus. The apparatus was operated for 0.5 to 4 hours for each LFP material to produce graphene-encapsulated LFP particles. Coated primary LFP particles were then made into secondary particles according to similar procedures described in Example 1.

Example 8: Graphene-Encapsulated V₂O₅ as an Example of a Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Active Material of a Lithium Battery

V₂O₅ powder is commercially available. A mixture of V₂O₅ powder and natural graphite (10/1 weight ratio) was sealed in each of 4 ball milling pots symmetrically positioned in a high-intensity ball mill. The mill was operated for 1 hour to produce particulates of graphene-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles, which were implemented as the cathode active material in a lithium metal battery. Coated primary particles, 2-7.5% by weight pristine graphene or amine-functionalized graphene sheets, and a small amount of surfactant (Triton-100) were added into deionized water to make slurries. The slurries were then ultrasonic sprayed onto glass substrate surface to form particulates.

Example 9: LiCoO₂ as an Example of Lithium Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Active Material for a Lithium-Ion Battery

In a set of experiments, a mixture of LiCoO₂ powder and natural graphite (100/1-10/1 weight ratio) was sealed in each of 4 ball milling pots symmetrically positioned in a high-intensity ball mill. The mill was operated for 0.5-4 hours to produce particulates of graphene-encapsulated LiCoO₂ particles. Coated primary particles were then made into secondary particles according to similar procedures described in Example 1.

Example 10: Organic Cathode Active Material (Li₂C₆O₆) of a Lithium Metal Battery

The experiments associated with this example were conducted to determine if organic materials, such as Li₂C₆O₆, can be encapsulated in graphene sheets using the presently invented direct transfer method. The result is that organic active materials alone are typically incapable of peeling off graphene sheets from graphite particles. However, if a second active material (i.e. rigid particles of an inorganic material or a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide) is implemented along with an organic active material in a ball milling pot, then the organic material particles and inorganic material particles can be separately or concurrently encapsulated to form graphene-encapsulated organic particles, graphene-encapsulated inorganic particles, and graphene-encapsulated mixture of organic and inorganic particles. This is interesting and surprising.

In order to synthesize dilithium rhodizonate (Li₂C₆O₆), the rhodizonic acid dihydrate (species 1 in the following scheme) was used as a precursor. A basic lithium salt, Li₂CO₃ can be used in aqueous media to neutralize both enediolic acid functions. Strictly stoichiometric quantities of both reactants, rhodizonic acid and lithium carbonate, were allowed to react for 10 hours to achieve a yield of 90%. Dilithium rhodizonate (species 2) was readily soluble even in a small amount of water, implying that water molecules are present in species 2. Water was removed in a vacuum at 180° C. for 3 hours to obtain the anhydrous version (species 3).

A mixture of an organic cathode active material (Li₂C₆O₆) and an inorganic cathode active material (V₂O₅ and MoS₂, separately) was ball-milled for 0.5-2.0 hours to obtain a mixture of graphene-encapsulated particles.

Coated primary particles, 2-7.5% by weight pristine graphene or amine-functionalized graphene sheets, and a small amount of surfactant (Triton-100) were added into deionized water to make slurries. The slurries were then ultrasonic sprayed onto glass substrate surface to form particulates. It may be noted that the two Li atoms in the formula Li₂C₆O₆ are part of the fixed structure and they do not participate in reversible lithium ion storing and releasing. This implies that lithium ions must come from the anode side. Hence, there must be a lithium source (e.g. lithium metal or lithium metal alloy) at the anode. In one battery cell herein tested, the anode current collector (Cu foil) is deposited with a layer of lithium (via sputtering). The resulting cell is a lithium metal cell.

Example 11: Graphene-Encapsulated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C and Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathodes for Sodium Metal Batteries

The Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C sample was synthesized by a solid state reaction according to the following procedure: a stoichiometric mixture of NaH₂PO₄.2H₂O (99.9%, Alpha) and V₂O₃ (99.9%, Alpha) powders was put in an agate jar as a precursor and then the precursor was ball-milled in a planetary ball mill at 400 rpm in a stainless steel vessel for 8 h. During ball milling, for the carbon coated sample, sugar (99.9%, Alpha) was also added as the carbon precursor and the reductive agent, which prevents the oxidation of V3⁺. After ball milling, the mixture was heated at 900° C. for 24 h in Ar atmosphere. Separately, the Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ powder was prepared in a similar manner, but without sugar. Samples of both powders were then subjected to ball milling in the presence of natural graphite particles to prepare graphene-encapsulated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ particles and graphene-encapsulated carbon-coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ particles. Coated primary particles, 5-13.5% by weight pristine graphene or amine-functionalized graphene sheets, and a small amount of surfactant (Triton-100) were added into deionized water to make slurries. The slurries were then spray-dried to form particulates.

The particulates of cathode active materials were used in several Na metal cells containing 1 M of NaPF₆ salt in PC+DOL as the electrolyte. It was discovered that graphene encapsulation significantly improved the cycle stability of all Na metal cells studied. In terms of cycle life, the following sequence was observed: graphene-encapsulated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C>graphene-encapsulated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃>Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C>Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃.

Example 12: Preparation of Graphene-Encapsulated MoS₂ Particles as a Cathode Active Material of a Na Metal Battery

A wide variety of inorganic materials were investigated in this example. For instance, an ultra-thin MoS₂ material was synthesized by a one-step solvothermal reaction of (NH₄)₂MoS₄ and hydrazine in N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) at 200° C. In a typical procedure, 22 mg of (NH₄)₂MoS₄was added to 10 ml of DMF. The mixture was sonicated at room temperature for approximately 10 min until a clear and homogeneous solution was obtained. After that, 0.1 ml of N₂H₄—H₂O was added. The reaction solution was further sonicated for 30 min before being transferred to a 40 mL Teflon-lined autoclave. The system was heated in an oven at 200° C. for 10 h. Product was collected by centrifugation at 8000 rpm for 5 min, washed with DI water and recollected by centrifugation. The washing step was repeated for 5 times to ensure that most DMF was removed.

Subsequently, MoS₂ particles were dried and subjected to graphene encapsulation by high-intensity ball milling in the presence of natural graphite particles. Coated primary particles were then made into secondary particles according to similar procedures described in Example 1.

Example 13: Preparation of Two-Dimensional (2D) Layered Bi₂Se₃ Chalcogenide Nanoribbons

The preparation of (2D) layered Bi₂Se₃ chalcogenide nanoribbons is well-known in the art. In the present study, Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons were grown using the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) method. Nanoribbons herein produced are, on average, 30-55 nm thick with widths and lengths ranging from hundreds of nanometers to several micrometers. Larger nanoribbons were subjected to ball-milling for reducing the lateral dimensions (length and width) to below 200 nm. Nanoribbons prepared by these procedures were subjected to graphene encapsulation using the presently invented direct transfer method. Coated primary particles were then made into secondary particles according to similar procedures described in Example 1.

The graphene double-encapsulated Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons were used as a cathode active material for Na battery. Surprisingly, Bi₂Se₃ chalcogenide nanoribbons are capable of storing Na ions on their surfaces.

Example 14: Preparation of Graphene-Encapsulated MnO₂ and NaMnO₂ Cathode Active Material for Na Metal Cells and Zn Metal Cells

For the preparation of the MnO₂ powder, a 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ aqueous solution was prepared by dissolving potassium permanganate in deionized water. Meanwhile, 13.32 g surfactant of high purity sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate was added in 300 mL iso-octane (oil) and stirred well to get an optically transparent solution. Then, 32.4 mL of 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ solution was added into the solution, which was ultrasonicated for 30 min to prepare a dark brown precipitate. The product was separated, washed several times with distilled water and ethanol, and dried at 80° C. for 12 h. Some amount of the MnO₂ powder was then subjected to the direct transfer treatment to obtain graphene-encapsulated MnO₂ particles. Coated primary particles were then made into secondary particles according to similar procedures described in Example 1.

Additionally, NaMnO₂ particles were synthesized by ball-milling a mixture of Na₂CO₃ and MnO₂ (at a molar ratio of 1:2) for 12 h followed by heating at 870° C. for 10 h. The resulting NaMnO₂ particles were then subjected to ball-milling in the presence of MCMB particles to prepare graphene encapsulated NaMnO₂ particles.

The MnO₂ particles, with or without graphene encapsulation, are also incorporated in alkaline Zn/MnO₂ cells. Graphene encapsulation was found to dramatically increase the cycle life of this type of cell. The Zn-graphene/MnO₂ battery is composed of a graphene/MnO₂-based cathode (with an optional cathode current collector and an optional conductive filler), a Zn metal or alloy-based anode (with an optional anode current collector), and an aqueous electrolyte (e.g. a mixture of a mild ZnSO₄ or Zn(NO₃)₂ with MnSO₄ in water).

Example 15: Graphene-encapsulated layered zinc hydroxide salts (a hybrid cathode material)

The structural arrangements of dodecyl sulfate (DS) anions in the interlayer space of layered zinc hydroxide salts (LZH-DS) and of the structure of zinc hydroxide layers were investigated. As-prepared, highly crystalline LZH-DS has a basal spacing of 31.5 Å (3.15 nm). After treatment with methanol at room temperature, zinc hydroxide layers shrank to form two new layered phases with basal spacings of 26.4 and 24.7 Å. The shrinking was accompanied by a decrease in the content of DS anions in the interlayer space, indicating a change in the alignment of the intercalated anions and a decrease in the charge density of the zinc hydroxide layers. This study indicates that tetrahedra Zn ions can be reversibly removed from the hydroxide layers, with the octahedrally coordinated Zn ions left unaffected. This result suggests that layered zinc hydroxide can be used as a Zn intercalation compound. In the present investigation, layered zinc hydroxide particles were also subjected to ball milling in the presence of natural graphite particles, resulting in the formation of graphene-encapsulated zinc hydroxide particles, which were then further embraced by RGO sheets to make secondary particles. It was discovered that graphene encapsulation imparts high-rate capability to the layered zinc hydroxide when used as a cathode active material of a Zn metal cell.

Example 16: Preparation and Electrochemical Testing of Various Battery Cells

For most of the anode and cathode active materials investigated, we prepared lithium-ion cells or lithium metal cells using the conventional slurry coating method. A typical anode composition includes 85 wt. % active material (e.g., graphene-encapsulated, Si or Co₃O₄ particles), 7 wt. % acetylene black (Super-P), and 8 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride binder (PVDF, 5 wt. % solid content) dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP). After coating the slurries on Cu foil, the electrodes were dried at 120° C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent. With the instant method, typically no binder resin is needed or used, saving 8% weight (reduced amount of non-active materials). Cathode layers (e.g. LFP, NCM, LiCoO₂, etc.) are made in a similar manner (using Al foil as the cathode current collector) using the conventional slurry coating and drying procedures. An anode layer, separator layer (e.g. Celgard 2400 membrane), and a cathode layer are then laminated together and housed in a plastic-Al envelop. The cell is then injected with 1 M LiPF₆ electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). In some cells, ionic liquids were used as the liquid electrolyte. The cell assemblies were made in an argon-filled glove-box.

The cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements were carried out using an Arbin electrochemical workstation at a typical scanning rate of 1 mV/s. In addition, the electrochemical performances of various cells were also evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of from 50 mA/g to 10 A/g. For long-term cycling tests, multi-channel battery testers manufactured by LAND were used.

In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation.

Shown in FIG. 4 are the charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells all featuring Co₃O₄ particle-based anodes: (a) containing un-protected Co₃O₄ particles, (b) graphene-encapsulated Co₃O₄ primary particles produced by the instant direct transfer method; and (c) graphene-embraced particulates (secondary particles) of graphene-encapsulated Co₃O₄ primary particles. These data have clearly demonstrated the surprising result that the presently invented graphene-embraced secondary particles of graphene-encapsulated Co₃O₄ primary particles, when implemented as an anode active material, deliver the very best battery cycling behavior, even better than that of a battery having graphene-encapsulated primary Co₃O₄ particles as the anode active material. In contrast, the battery having un-protected Co₃O₄ particles as the anode active material exhibit rapid capacity decay upon repeated charges and discharges.

FIG. 5 shows the charge-discharge cycling behaviors 3 lithium cells featuring SnO₂ particle-based anodes: the first containing un-protected SnO₂ particles, second containing graphene-encapsulated primary SnO₂ particles produced by the instant direct transfer method, and the third containing graphene-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated primary particles. Again, the instant method of particulate formation leads to a lithium battery that exhibits a significantly more stable cycling behavior.

FIG. 6 shows the charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring micron-scaled (3 μm) Si particle-based anodes: a) containing un-protected Si particles, b) graphene-embraced primary Si particles produced by the direct transfer method, and c) graphene-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated Si particles produced by the instant direct transfer method (Si particles themselves being the graphene-peeling agent), followed by slurry spray-drying. Again, quite unexpectedly, graphene-embraced particulates containing graphene-encapsulated Si primary particles produced by the instant direct transfer method imparts significantly better battery cycling performance as compared to the electrode containing graphene-embraced Si primary particles.

FIG. 7 shows the discharge capacity values (mAh/g, based on composite weight) of 3 lithium cells featuring lithium iron phosphate (LFP) particle-based cathodes, plotted as a function of discharge C-rates: first one containing un-protected LFO particles (mixed with 12% by weight carbon), second one containing graphene-encapsulated carbon-added LFP primary particles produced by the instant direct transfer method (4% graphene+8% C), and third one RGO-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated primary LFP particles. It may be noted that the C-rates are commonly used in the arts of lithium batteries to characterize the ability of a battery or battery electrode to undergo fast charge or discharge without a significant capacity decay. Herein, by definition, 1 C rate=complete discharge in 1 hour or 60 minute; 5 C rate=complete discharge in 60/5=12 minutes; 0.1 C rate=complete discharge in 60/0.1=600 minutes or 10 hours. These data summarized in FIG. 7 have clearly demonstrated the surprising effectiveness of using the double-level graphene embracing/encapsulation protection strategy in minimizing capacity reduction when the battery is discharged in high rates.

FIG. 8 shows the charge-discharge cycling behaviors of 3 lithium cells featuring LiV₂O₅ nanorod-based cathodes: a) containing RGO-embraced particulates of graphene-encapsulated LiV₂O₅ nanorods, b) graphene-embraced LiV₂O₅ nanorods produced by the direct transfer method (approximately 5% graphene+7% C), and c) LiV₂O₅ nanorods protected by a carbon matrix. These results have demonstrated that graphene-embraced secondary particles containing graphene-encapsulated LiV₂O₅ nanorods (primary particles) produced by the direct transfer method lead to the most stable battery cycling behavior.

FIG. 4, FIG. 5, FIG. 6, FIG. 7, and FIG. 8 are but a few examples of the massive amount of data that demonstrate the surprisingly superior cycling performances of lithium batteries featuring the presently invented graphene-encapsulated electrode active material particles. Similar results have been obtained with other types of batteries, such as other lithium metal secondary battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-air battery, lithium-selenium battery, sodium-ion battery, sodium metal secondary battery, sodium-sulfur battery, sodium-air battery, magnesium-ion battery, magnesium metal battery, aluminum-ion battery, aluminum metal secondary battery, zinc-ion battery, zinc metal battery, zinc-air battery, lithium-ion capacitors, and sodium-ion capacitors. 

1. A graphene-embraced particulate for use as a lithium-ion battery anode active material, wherein said particulate comprises a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles of an anode active material, comprising a primary particle of said anode active material and multiple sheets of a first graphene material overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate said primary particle, and wherein said single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by multiple sheets of a second graphene material, wherein said first graphene material is the same as or different from said second graphene material, and wherein said first graphene and said second graphene material are each in an amount from 0.01% to 20% by weight and said optional conductive additive is in an amount from 0% to 50% by weight, all based on the total weight of said particulate, and wherein said a surface of the first graphene material or the second graphene material is in physical contact with or bonded to a chemical species forming a redox pair with lithium, selected from a sulfonate or sulfonyl-containing group, a phosphate, or a —NH₂-containing group.
 2. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said redox pair with lithium is selected from lithium 4-methylbenzenesulfonate, lithium 3,5-dicarboxybenzenesulfonate, lithium 2,6-dimethylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, 3,3′4(1,2-dithiane-4,5-diyl)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), 3,3′-((4-mercapto-1,2-phenylene)bis(oxy))bis(N-hydroxypropanamide), lithium aniline sulfonate, poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, lithium sulfate, lithium phosphate, lithium phosphate monobasic, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptadecafluorooctane-1-sulfonate, lithium 2,6-di-tert-butylbenzene-1,4-disulfonate, lithium aniline sulfonate (wherein the sulfonate may be in any of para, meta and ortho positions), poly(lithium-4-styrenesulfonate, a lithiated sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.
 3. The particulate of claim 2, wherein said sulfonated polymer is selected from sulfonated polyaniline, sulfonated polypyrrole, a sulfonated polythiophene, sulfonated polyfuran, a sulfonated bi-cyclic polymer, or a combination thereof.
 4. The particulate of claim 2, wherein said sulfonated polymer is selected from the group consisting of sulfonated natural polyisoprene, sulfonated synthetic polyisoprene, sulfonated polybutadiene, sulfonated chloroprene rubber, sulfonated polychloroprene, sulfonated butyl rubber, sulfonated styrene-butadiene rubber, sulfonated nitrile rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-octene) elastomer, sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, sulfonated styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, sulfonated epichlorohydrin rubber, sulfonated polyacrylic rubber, sulfonated silicone rubber, sulfonated fluorosilicone rubber, sulfonated perfluoroelastomers, sulfonated polyether block amides, sulfonated chlorosulfonated polyethylene, sulfonated ethylene-vinyl acetate, sulfonated thermoplastic elastomer, sulfonated protein resilin, sulfonated protein elastin, sulfonated ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, sulfonated polyurethane, sulfonated urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.
 5. The particulate of claim 2, wherein said sulfonated polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetra-fluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer, sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride, sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene, polybenzimidazole, and chemical derivatives, copolymers, and blends thereof.
 6. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said particulate is spherical or ellipsoidal in shape.
 7. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said first graphene material or said second graphene material comprises single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein said few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene sheet or platelet formed of 2-10 graphene planes.
 8. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said first graphene material or said second graphene material is selected from the group consisting of pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, and combinations thereof.
 9. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said first graphene material is different than said second graphene material.
 10. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said first graphene material comprises pristine graphene and said second graphene material is selected from the group consisting of graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.
 11. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said first graphene material comprises a first chemically functionalized graphene and said second graphene material is selected from the group consisting of graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, a second chemically functionalized graphene, and combinations thereof, wherein said first chemically functionalized graphene is different than the second chemically functionalized graphene.
 12. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said anode active material comprises an element selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, Sn, Cd, Sb, Pb, Bi, Zn, Al, Co, Ni, Ti, alloys thereof, and combinations thereof.
 13. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: a. lithiated and un-lithiated silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); b. lithiated and un-lithiated alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; c. lithiated and un-lithiated oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, Mn, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; d. lithiated and un-lithiated salts and hydroxides of Sn; e. lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; and combinations thereof.
 14. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said primary particles of an anode active material have a size from 10 nm to 1 μm.
 15. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said primary particles of an anode active material have a size from 10 nm to 100 nm.
 16. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said conductive additive is selected from amorphous carbon, CVD carbon, carbonized resin, expanded graphite platelet, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, carbon fiber, graphite fiber, pitch, coke, carbon black, acetylene black, activated carbon, pitch-derived soft carbon (graphitizable carbon), pitch-derived hard carbon (non-graphitizable carbon), natural graphite particle, artificial graphite particle, electron-conducting polymer, lithium ion-conducting polymer, or a combination thereof, wherein said conductive additive is in electronic contact with said graphene-encapsulated primary particle.
 17. The particulate of claim 16, wherein said carbonized resin is obtained from pyrolyzation of a polymer selected from the group consisting of phenol-formaldehyde, polyacrylonitrile, styrene-based polymers, cellulosic polymers, epoxy resins, and combinations thereof.
 18. The particulate of claim 1, wherein said primary particles of anode active material are selected from lithiated titanium dioxide, lithiated titanium oxide, lithium titanate, or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂.
 19. The particulate of claim 1 wherein said primary particles of anode active material are selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, mesocarbon microbead (MCMB), graphitic coke, mesophase carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, polymeric carbon, carbon or graphite fiber segments, carbon nanofiber or graphitic nanofiber, carbon nanotube, or a combination thereof.
 20. A mass of multiple particulates as defined in claim
 1. 21. A lithium battery anode electrode comprising a mass of multiple particulates of claim 1 and optional conductive filler and binder.
 22. A lithium battery comprising the anode electrode of claim
 21. 23. A lithium battery comprising the anode electrode of claim 21 and a cathode comprising cathode particulates, wherein a cathode particulate comprises a single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles of a cathode active material, having a size from 5 nm to 20 μm, wherein said graphene-encapsulated primary particle is composed of a primary particle of said cathode active material and multiple sheets of a first graphene material overlapped together to embrace or encapsulate said primary particle and wherein said single or a plurality of graphene-encapsulated primary particles, along with an optional conductive additive, are further embraced or encapsulated by multiple sheets of a second graphene material.
 24. A battery electrode comprising said graphene-embraced particulates as defined in claim 1 as an anode active material, wherein said battery is a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal secondary battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-air battery, lithium-selenium battery, sodium-ion battery, sodium metal secondary battery, sodium-sulfur battery, sodium-air battery, magnesium-ion battery, magnesium metal battery, aluminum-ion battery, aluminum metal secondary battery, zinc-ion battery, zinc metal battery, or zinc-air battery. 